Non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery comprising composite particles

ABSTRACT

A non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery comprises a positive electrode and a negative electrode capable of intercalating and de-intercalating lithium, a non-aqueous electrolyte and separators or solid electrolytes. The negative electrode contains, as a main component, composite particles constructed in such a manner that at least part of the surface of nuclear particles comprising at least one of tin, silicon and zinc as a constituent element, is coated with a solid solution or an inter-metallic compound composed of the element included in the nuclear particles and another predetermined element which is not an element included in the nuclear particles. To improve the ability of the battery, the composite particles mentioned above can include at least one trace element selected from iron, lead and bismuth. The porosity of a mixture layer at the negative electrode is 10% or more and 50% or less. The amount of the non-aqueous electrolyte, the thickness of the separators or the like is restricted in a specific value. The foregoing construction suppresses occurrence of an internal short circuit between the positive electrode and the negative electrode caused by expansion of the negative electrode materials, thereby achieving a high capacity battery with a superior charge/discharge cycle properties, which is suitable for a high-speed charging.

This application is a U.S. National Phase Application of PCT International application PCT/JP99/06687.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to a non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery (hereinafter, battery). The present invention especially relates to batteries of which electrochemical properties such as charge/discharge capacity and charge/discharge cycle life have been enhanced by improvements in the negative electrode materials, separators and the amounts of electrolyte. The present invention further relates to batteries wherein the electrochemical properties mentioned above, as well as shelf stability, have been improved by designing a better balance between the positive electrode and the negative electrode materials, as well as the positive electrode and the negative electrode plates.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Lithium secondary batteries with non-aqueous electrolytes, which are used in such areas as mobile communications devices, including portable information terminals and portable electronic devices, as power sources of portable electronic devices, domestic portable electricity storing devices, motor cycles using an electric motor as a driving source, electric cars and hybrid electric cars, have characteristics of a high electromotive force and a high energy density. Although the energy density of the lithium secondary batteries using lithium metal as a negative electrode material is high, there is a possibility that dendrite deposits form on the negative electrode during charging. By repeated charging and discharging, the dendrite breaks through separators to the positive electrode side, thereby causing an internal short circuit. The deposited dendrite has a large specific surface area, thus its reaction activity is high. Therefore, it reacts with solvents in the electrolyte solution on its surface and forms a surface layer which acts like a solid electrolyte having no electronic conduction. This raises the internal resistance of the batteries or causes some particles to be excluded from the network of electronic conduction, lowering the charge/discharge efficiency of the battery. Due to these reasons, the lithium secondary batteries using lithium metal as a negative electrode material have a low reliability and a short cycle life.

Nowadays, lithium secondary batteries which use carbon materials capable of intercalating and de-intercalating lithium ions as a negative electrode material are commercially available. In general, lithium metal does not deposit on carbon negative electrodes. Thus, in such batteries short circuits do not occur due to dendrite formation. However, the theoretical capacity of graphite, which is one of the currently available carbon materials, is 372 mAh/g, only one tenth of that of pure lithium (Li) metal.

Other known negative electrode materials include pure metallic materials and pure non-metallic materials which form composites with lithium. For example, composition formulae of compounds of tin (Sn), silicon (Si) and zinc (Zn) with the maximum amount of lithium are Li₂₂Sn₅, Li₂₂Si₅, and LiZn respectively. Within the range of these composition formulae, metallic lithium does not normally deposit to form dendrites. Thus, an internal short circuit due to dendrite formation does not occur. Furthermore, electrochemical capacities between these compounds and each element in pure form mentioned above is respectively 993 mAh/g, 4199 mAh/g and 410 mAh/g; all larger than the theoretical capacity of graphite.

As an example of other compound negative electrode materials, the Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication No. H07-240201 discloses a non-metallic siliside comprising transition elements. The Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication No. H09-63651 discloses negative electrode materials which are made of inter-metallic compounds comprising at least one of group 4B elements, phosphorus (P) and antimony (Sb), and have a crystal structure of one of the CaF₂ type, the ZnS type and the AlLiSi type.

However, the foregoing high-capacity negative electrode materials have the following problems. Negative electrode materials of pure metallic materials and pure non-metallic materials which form compounds with lithium have inferior charge/discharge cycle properties compared with carbon negative electrode materials. The reason for this is assumed to be destruction of the negative electrode materials caused by their increase and decrease in volume.

On the other hand, unlike the foregoing materials in pure form, the Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication No. H07-240201 and the Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication No. H09-63651 disclose negative electrode materials which comprise non-metallic silisides composed of transition elements and inter-metallic compounds including at least one of group 4B elements, P and Sb, and have a crystal structure of one of the CaF₂ type, the ZnS type and the AlLiSi type, as negative electrode materials with an improved cycle life property.

Batteries using the negative electrode materials of the non-metallic silisides composed of transition elements disclosed in the Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication No. H07-240201 have an improved charge/discharge cycle property when compared with lithium metal negative electrode materials (considering the capacity of the batteries according to an embodiment and a comparative example at the first cycle, the fiftieth cycle and the hundredth cycle). However, when compared with a natural graphite negative electrode material, the increase in the capacity of the battery is only about 12%.

The materials disclosed in the Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication No. H09-63651 have a better charge/discharge cycle property than a Li—Pb alloy negative electrode material (as shown in tests between an embodiment and a comparative example), and have a larger capacity compared with a graphite negative electrode material. However, the discharge capacity decreases significantly, up to the 10˜20th charge/discharge cycles. Even with Mg₂Sn, which is considered to be better than any of the other materials, the discharge capacity decreases to approximately 70% of the initial capacity after about the 20th cycle.

Examples of positive electrode active materials for the non-aqueous electrolyte secondary batteries, which are capable of intercalating and de-intercalating lithium ions, include a lithium transition metal composite oxide with high charge/discharge voltage such as LiCoO₂, disclosed in the Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication No. Other materials such as S55-136131, and LiNiO₂, disclosed in the U.S. Pat. No. 4,302,518, aim at even a higher capacity. Examples of such positive electrode active materials further include composite oxides comprising a plurality of metallic elements and lithium such as Li_(y)Ni_(x)Co_(1−x)O₂, disclosed in the Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication No. S63-299056, and Li_(x)M_(y)N_(z)O_(z) (M is one of Fe, Co and Ni, and N is one of Ti, V, Cr and Mn) disclosed in the Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication No. H04-267053.

Active research has been conducted on LiNiO₂ since the supply of Ni, its raw material, is stable and inexpensive, and it is expected to achieve a high capacity.

It has been known that with the thus far disclosed positive electrode active materials, especially Li_(y)Ni_(x)M_(1−x)O₂(M is at least one material selected from a group consisting of cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn), chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), vanadium (V), and aluminum (Al); and x is 1≧x≧0.5) there are significant differences in charge/discharge capacity between the initial charging (de-intercalation reaction of lithium) and discharging (intercalation reaction of lithium) in the voltage region usually used as a battery (4.3V-2V against Li)( see, for example, A. Rougier et al., Solid State Ionics 90, 83 (1996)). FIG. 2 shows a schematic view of the electric potential behavior at the initial charge and discharge of the positive electrode and the negative electrode of a battery in which composite particle materials with the same theoretical capacity as the foregoing positive electrode materials are used in the negative electrode.

In FIG. 2, (A-B) is the amount of electricity of the positive electrode charged during the first cycle, (B-C) is the discharge capacity of the positive electrode at the first cycle, and (C-A) is the irreversible capacity of the positive electrode. (A′-B′) is the amount of electricity of the negative electrode charged during the first cycle, which is equal to (A-B) of the positive electrode. (B′-C′) is the potential discharge capacity of the negative electrode at the first cycle, and (C′-A′) is the irreversible capacity of the negative electrode. The potential discharge capacity of the negative electrode at the first cycle (B′-C′) is larger than the discharge capacity of the positive electrode at the first cycle (B-C) by the amount of (C′-D). Therefore, the initial discharge capacity of the battery is determined by the initial discharge capacity of the positive electrode (B-C). In the charge/discharge cycles that follow from the second cycle onwards, a reversible reaction occurs between (B-C) in the positive electrode and (B′-D) in the negative electrode, which is the same capacity as (B-C). Thus, an amount of lithium corresponding to the capacity of the negative electrode (C′-D), remains in the negative electrode as “dead lithium” which can not contribute to the charge/discharge reaction of the battery, thereby lowering the capacity of the battery.

When the theoretical capacity of the positive electrode and the negative electrode are adjusted by increasing the amount of active materials in the positive electrode so that the first discharge capacity of the positive electrode and the negative electrode becomes the same after the first charging, the negative electrode is over charged by the amount of (C′-D) equal to the amount of “dead lithium” in the negative electrode, namely the amount corresponding to the difference between the irreversible capacity of the positive electrode (C-A) and the negative electrode (C′-A′).

However, the reversible charge capacity of the negative electrode active material is limited. If charging is conducted beyond that limit, lithium metal deposits on the surface of the negative electrode plate. The deposited lithium reacts with the electrolytic solution and becomes inert, thereby lowering the charge/discharge efficiency and thus lowering the cycle life properties.

Conversely, if the negative electrode capacity is significantly larger than the positive electrode capacity, increase of the capacity of the batteries becomes harder due to the excess negative electrode material contained in the negative electrode.

To solve these problems, the Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication No. H05-62712 discloses a capacity ratio of the positive electrode to the negative electrode. Calculations made in this disclosure are based on the total capacity. However, in actual use, influences of such factors as strength of charging current, charging voltage, and materials used in the positive electrode and the negative electrode are significant. Thus, when a battery is charged slowly (over a long time), just regulating the ratio of the total capacity as disclosed in the Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication No. H05-62712 is adequate. However, if the speed of charging is important, as it has been in high-speed charging and pulse charging in recent years, the process is inadequate.

The speed of charging is largely influenced by the specific surface area of the materials. Needless to say, a large specific surface area is more advantageous in terms of charging speed, however, if the specific surface area is excessively large, the capacity retention rate deteriorates markedly due to the generation of gas. Thus, the specific surface area needs to be kept within an appropriate range. With regard to this point, for the batteries using carbon material, favorable ranges of the specific surface area are suggested in the Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication No. H04-242890 and the Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication No. S63-276873. The ranges are, in the case of the former, 0.5-10 m²/g and the latter, 1.0 m²/g or larger. The Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication No. H04-249073 and the Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication No. H06-103976 disclose favorable ranges for the specific surface area of the positive electrode materials, that is, in the case of the former, 0.01-3 m²/g and the latter, 0.5-10 m²/g.

However, when considering a performance of a battery, the balance of intercalation and de-intercalation capacity between the positive electrode and the negative electrode is important, thus merely controlling the capacity of one element separately is meaningless. In other words, regulating the specific surface area of the positive electrode and the negative electrode independently, as has been conducted conventionally, is not satisfactory.

The present invention aims to address the problems of conventional batteries described thus far.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to non-aqueous electrolyte secondary batteries comprising an positive electrode and a negative electrode capable of intercalating and de-intercalating lithium, a non-aqueous electrolyte and separators or solid electrolytes. The negative electrode is characterized by its main material which uses composite particles constructed in such a manner that at least part of the surrounding surface of nuclear particles, containing at least one of tin (Sn), silicon (Si) and zinc (Zn) as a constituent element, is coated with a solid solution or an inter-metallic compound composed of an element included in the nuclear particles and at least one element (exclusive of the elements included in the nuclear particles) selected from transition elements, elements of group 2, group 12, group 13 and group 14 (exclusive of carbon) of the Periodic Table.

To improve the performance of the battery, the composite particles mentioned above can include at least one trace element selected from iron, lead and bismuth. Amounts of the trace element to be added is between 0.0005 wt % and 0.002 wt % or more.

The porosity of the mixture layer at the negative electrode is 10% or more and 50% or less. The porosity of the mixture layer is defined as:

total volume of the space area of the mixture layer/total volume of the mixture layer×100%.

The present invention maintains the most appropriate amount of the electrolytic solution between the electrode plates by setting it at about 0.1 ml to about 0.4 ml per 1 gram of the total weight of the positive electrode and the negative electrode materials in the battery casing.

The thickness of the separators located in between the positive electrode and the negative electrode of the battery of the present invention is about 15 μm to 40 μm. The piercing strength of the separators is 200 g or more.

Fluorinated carbon compounds defined as (C_(x)F) n (1≦x≦20) or metallic compounds which can be reduced electrochemically to metal by charging are added to the negative electrode materials of the battery of the present invention.

Regarding the battery of the present invention, the ratio of (specific surface area of the negative electrode material) to (specific surface area of the positive electrode material) is set at 0.3-12. In the same manner, when R1 is a diameter of a semi-circle arc plotted on a complex plane by measuring impedance at a range of frequencies between 10 kHz and 10 MHz using an electrochemical battery in which an positive electrode plate is set as an active electrode and lithium metal is used in the other electrode; and R2 is a diameter of a semi-circle arc plotted on a complex plane by measuring impedance at a range of frequencies between 10 kHz and 10 MHz using an electrochemical battery in which a negative electrode plate is set as an active electrode and lithium metal is used in the other electrode, the value of R2/R1 is between 0.01-15. Based on the value of R2/R1, the specific surface area of the negative electrode material and the positive electrode material is estimated.

The foregoing construction suppresses an internal short circuit between the positive electrode and the negative electrode caused by expansion of the negative electrode material, thereby providing a high capacity battery with a superior charge/discharge cycle property suitable for a high-speed charging.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows a vertical cross section of a cylindrical battery of the present invention.

FIG. 2 shows a schematic view of charge and discharge during the first cycle of a conventional lithium secondary battery.

FIG. 3 shows a schematic view of charge and discharge at the first cycle in accordance with a sixth preferred embodiment of a lithium secondary battery of the present invention.

FIG. 4 shows a graph illustrating changes in cycle life and deterioration in the capacity retention rate against the ratio of a specific surface area of positive electrode materials to a specific surface area of negative electrode materials.

FIG. 5 shows a view of a complex plane of impedance measurement.

FIG. 6 shows changes in cycle life and deterioration in the capacity retention rate against the ratio of the specific surface area of the positive electrode materials to the specific surface area of the negative electrode materials.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

In the present invention, composite particles whose nuclear particles composed of solid phase A are coated with solid phase B over the whole surface or part of the surface, are used as a negative electrode material. The solid phase A contains at least one of tin, silicon and zinc as a constituent element. The solid phase B is composed of a solid solution or inter-metallic compounds composed of at least one of tin, silicon and zinc and at least one element (exclusive of the foregoing constituent elements) selected from a group comprising elements of group 2, transition elements, elements of group 12, group 13 and group 14 (exclusive of carbon) of Periodic Table. Hereinafter, the foregoing negative electrode materials are called “composite particles”. When the composite particles are used as a negative electrode material, the solid phase B helps to suppress expansion and shrinkage of the solid phase A caused by charging and discharging, thereby achieving a negative electrode material with superior charge/discharge cycle properties.

It can be considered that the solid phase A of the negative electrode material of the present invention mainly contributes to a higher charge/discharge capacity since it contains at least one of Sn, Si and Zn. The solid phase B which coats the whole or part of the surrounding surface of the nuclear particles comprising the solid phase A, contributes to improvement of the charge/discharge cycle properties. The amount of lithium contained in the solid phase B is normally less than the metal, solid solution or inter-metallic compound.

In other words, the negative electrode material used in the present invention is constructed such that particles including at least one of high-capacity Sn, Si and Zn as a constituent element, are coated with the solid solution or the inter-metallic compounds which are resistant to pulverization. The solid solution or the inter-metallic compounds in the coating layer prevent significant changes in crystal structure, namely changes in volume of the nuclear particles caused by electrochemical intercalating and de-intercalating of lithium, thereby restricting pulverization of nuclear particles. However, the total volume of the coated particles changes to some extent.

Due to this volume change, as the negative electrode materials swell during charging, the negative electrode materials or conductive materials on the surface of the negative electrode plate, in some cases, partly penetrate through the separators located in between the positive electrode and the negative electrode, thus causing a micro short circuit between the positive electrode and the negative electrode. The change in volume of the negative electrode materials caused by charging and discharging of the present invention is larger than that of graphite materials. As such, it occurs more often compared with conventional batteries using graphite materials in the negative electrode.

To solve this problem, the inventors of the present invention found that if the thickness of the separator is set at 15 μm or more to 40 μm or less, and the piercing strength of it is 200 g or more, a micro short circuit between the positive electrode and the negative electrode caused by the swelling of the negative electrode materials during charging is restricted, thus achieving a good charge/discharge cycle property.

In other words, if the thickness of the separator between the positive electrode and the negative electrode is 15 μm or less, the negative electrode materials or conductive materials on the surface of the negative electrode plate partly penetrate through the separators located in between the positive electrode and the negative electrode, thus causing a micro short circuit between the positive electrode and the negative electrode. On the other hand, if the thickness of the separator is 40 μm or more, the volume of the separators within the casing of the battery increases while the volume of the fillings in the positive electrode and the negative electrode needs to be reduced. As a result, the initial charge/discharge capacity lowers.

The present invention specifies the piercing strength of the separator, which is an index of the physical characteristics of the separator. The measuring method of the piercing strength is described below:

cut a separator into a 50 mm×50 mm piece, then place it onto a jig fixing it at 5 mm from both sides;

press the center of the separator at a speed of 2 mm/sec with a needle of 1 mm in diameter and with a tip of 0.5R; and

measure the value of the maximum load at breaking point.

The value of the maximum load is the piercing strength. When the piercing strength measured by this method is 200 g or less, even if the thickness of the separator is 15 μm or more, the negative electrode materials swell during charging, thus causing a micro short circuit between the positive electrode and the negative electrode. As a result, a good charge/discharge cycle property can not be achieved.

Porous thin films having a large ion permeability, a predetermined mechanical strength and insulation properties are used as a separator of the present invention. It is desirable that the separators close their pores at a predetermined temperature or higher so that the internal resistance of the battery is increased. Separators are required to have an organic solvent resistance and a hydrophobic property. Therefore, polypropylene, polyethylene and their copolymers such as olefin polymers, as well as glass fiber sheet and both non-woven and woven fabrics of glass fiber are used as materials for the separators. The diameter of the pore of the separators is desirably set within the range through which positive electrode and negative electrode materials separated from electrode sheets, binding materials, and conductive materials can not penetrate. Such a desirable range is, for example, 0.01-1 μm. The porosity is determined by the permeability of electrons and ions, material and membrane thickness, in general however, it is desirably 30-80%.

The amount of non-aqueous electrolytic solution (hereinafter, electrolyte) against 1 g of total weight of the positive electrode and the negative electrode materials which can intercalate and de-intercalate lithium within the casing of the battery, is desirably between 0.1 ml and 0.4 ml.

If the electrolyte is between 0.1 ml and 0.4 ml, the electrolyte can be sufficiently maintained over the entire surface of both the positive electrode and the negative electrode, even when the amount of the non-aqueous electrolytic solution is changed due to expansion and shrinkage of the negative electrode materials. Thus, a good charge and discharge cycle property can be obtained.

On the other hand, if the amount of the electrolyte is 0.1 ml/g or less, the electrolyte fails to adequately cover the negative electrode. The current density during charging and discharging differs significantly depending on whether or not the part of the negative electrode where the current is flowing, is adequately covered by the electrolyte. In the part of the negative electrode where the electrolyte adequately penetrates, excess lithium ions contribute to electrode reaction, increasing the charging capacity of the negative electrode material. When the negative electrode materials react with lithium, their structure changes. Thus, good charge/discharge cycle properties can not be expected.

If the amount of the electrolyte in the casing of the battery is 0.4 ml or more, excessive amounts of electrolyte overflows from between the electrodes, increasing the internal pressure of the battery which in turn causes a leakage of the electrolyte. Thus, it is not desirable.

By adding a trace amount of impure elements to the negative electrode materials of the battery of the present invention, the retention rate of the discharge capacity after charge/discharge cycles can be improved. The retention rate of the discharge capacity can also be improved by adding fluorinated carbon compounds or metallic compounds which can be reduced electrochemically to metal by charging, to the negative electrode materials. This improvement in the retention rate is between 1 and 8%. It sounds like just a small improvement. However, considering the fact that the retention rate has already reached over 90%, this improvement is significant from an industrial perspective. That means, 1% improvement actually corresponds to 10% improvement against the remaining 10% yet to be improved, and in the same manner, 8% means 80%.

Moreover, in the field of the energy technology to which the present invention relates, 1% improvement in efficiency means, a significant reduction in energy consumption world wide.

In the battery of the present invention, the porosity of the mixture layer composing the negative electrode materials is set at about 10% or more and about 50% or less. The reason why the porosity is set in that range is as follows. If the porosity is 10% or less, the density of the negative electrode materials can be increased. However, the electrolytic solution does not penetrate into the negative electrode sufficiently. Thus, the negative electrode materials fail to be used adequately, resulting in a deteriorated charge/discharge cycle property. Especially in the case of the negative electrode materials of the present invention, any increase in the volume of the particles is markedly restricted since the solid phase A is covered with the solid phase B, however, the volume still increases by tens of a percentage. This has a significant influence on the battery charge/discharge cycle property. Compared with carbon materials which do not increase in volume, the present invention requires a larger space between the electrodes. In other words, when the porosity is low, the volume of the space in the negative electrode decreases remarkably when the negative electrode materials intercalate lithium, thereby reducing the retained electrolyte. Furthermore, swelling and shrinking of the electrode plates themselves may cause damage to the mixture layer. On the other hand, if the porosity is 50% or more, although the use rate of the negative electrode materials improves due to a better penetration of the electrolytic solution, the absolute amount of the negative electrode materials decrease. Thus, a battery with a higher capacity than a battery using carbon materials in the negative electrode can not be achieved.

As a method to adjust the porosity of the mixture layer of the negative electrode, a pressure roller can be used. The porosity can also be adjusted by adding and controlling the amount of a pore forming material.

Regarding the battery of the present invention, the value of the (specific surface area of the negative electrode material)/(specific surface area of the positive electrode material) is set at 0.3-12. In the same manner, when R1 is a diameter of a semi-circle arc plotted on a complex plane by measuring impedance at a range of frequencies between 10 kHz and 10 MHz using an electrochemical battery in which an positive electrode plate is used as an active electrode and lithium metal is used in the other electrode; and R2 is a diameter of a semi-circle arc plotted on a complex plane by measuring impedance at a range of frequencies between 10 kHz and 10 MHz using an electrochemical battery in which a negative electrode plate is set as an active electrode and lithium metal is used in the other electrode, the value of R2/R1 is between 0.01-15. If the value of (specific surface area of the negative electrode material)/(specific surface area of the positive electrode material) is not less than 12, the electric potential of the positive electrode rises when the battery is charged fully, which promotes the production of gas. Thus, when the battery is charged and stored, its capacity decreases significantly. Conversely, when the value is not more than 0.3, lithium deposits on the surface of the negative electrode materials during high-speed charging, and the cycle life of the battery is degraded significantly.

Since binders and conductive materials are used when electrode materials are used as positive electrode and negative electrode plates, the value of (specific surface area of the negative electrode material)/(specific surface area of the positive electrode material) may not be enough to measure the properties of the battery. In such a case, the charge/discharge properties per unit area of the positive electrode and the negative electrode plates can be estimated by measuring impedance of the positive electrode and the negative electrode. Thus, by regulating the ratio of the diameters of semi-circle arcs plotted on the complex planes to show the result of measuring, the charge/discharge properties per unit area can be estimated.

In short, when the value of R2/R1 is not more than 0.01, the electric potential of the positive electrode rises when the battery is fully charged, promoting the production of gas. Thus, when the battery is charged and stored, its capacity decreases significantly. Conversely, when the value is not more than 15, lithium deposits on the surface of the negative electrode materials during high-speed charging, and the cycle life of the battery is degraded significantly.

The materials used in the battery of the present invention are described in detail below.

The positive electrode and the negative electrode of the battery of the present invention are constructed by coating a current collector with a composite mixture which includes, as main constituents, the positive electrode active materials and the negative electrode materials capable of electrochemically and reversibly intercalating and de-intercalating lithium ions, and conductive materials as well as binders.

The following is a manufacturing method of composite particles used for the negative electrode materials.

In one manufacturing method of the composite materials, a fused mixture of elements to be included in the composite particles at a predetermined composition ratio is quenched and solidified by dry-spraying, wet-spraying, roll-quenching or turning-electrode method. The solidified material is treated with heat lower than the solid-line temperature of a solid solution or inter-metallic compounds. The solid line temperature is determined by the composition ratio. The process of quenching and solidifying of the fused mixture allows the solid phase A to deposit, and at the same time, allows the solid phase B, which coats part of or the whole surface of the solid phase A, to deposit. The heat treatment following the foregoing method enhances evenness of the solid phase A and the solid phase B. Even when the heat treatment is not conducted, composite particles suitable for the present invention can be obtained. Apart from the quenching method mentioned above, other methods are applicable providing they can quench the fused mixture rapidly and adequately.

In another manufacturing method, a layer of deposits comprising essential elements in forming solid phase B is formed on the surface of powder of the solid phase A. The layer is treated at temperatures lower than the solid line. This heat treatment allows constituent elements within the solid phase A to disperse throughout the deposit layer to form the solid phase B as a coating layer. The deposit layer can be formed by plating or by a mechanical alloying method. In the case of the mechanical alloying method, the heat treatment is not necessary. Other methods can also be used on the condition that they can form the surrounding deposit layer.

As a conductive material for the negative electrode, any electronic conduction materials can be used. Examples of such materials include graphite materials including natural graphite (scale-like graphite), synthetic graphite and expanding graphite; carbon blacks such as acetylene black, Ketzen black (highly structured furnace black), channel black, furnace black, lamp black and thermal black; conductive fibers such as carbon fibers and metallic fibers; metal powders such as copper and nickel; and organic conductive materials such as polyphenylene derivatives. These materials can be used independently or in combination. Among these conductive materials, synthetic graphite, acetylene black and carbon fibers are especially favorable.

The amount of conductive additives is not specifically defined, however, 1-50 wt %, especially 1-30% of the negative electrode materials is desirable. As negative electrode materials (composite particles) of the present invention are conductive themselves, even if conductive materials are not added, the battery can actually function. Therefore, the battery has more room available to contain more composite particles.

Binders for the negative electrode can be either thermoplastic resin or thermosetting resin. Desirable binders for the present invention includes the following materials; polyethylene, polypropylene, poly-tetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), poly-vinylidene fluoride (PVDF), styrene—butadiene rubber, a tetrafluoroethylene—hexafluoropropylene copolymer (FEP), a tetrafluoroethylene—perfluoro-alkyl-vynyl ether copolymer (PFA), a vinyliden fluoride—hexafluoropropylene copolymer, a vinyliden fluoride—chlorotrifluoroethylene copolymer, a ethylene—tetrafluoroethylene copolymer (ETFE), poly chlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE), a vinyliden fluoride—pentafluoropropylene copolymer, a propylene—tetrafluoroethylene copolymer, a ethylene—chlorotrifluoroethylene copolymer (ECTFE), a vinyliden fluoride—hexafluoropropylene—tetrafluoroethylene copolymer, a vinyliden fluoride perfluoro-methyl vinyl ether—tetrafluoroethylene copolymer, an ethylene—acrylic acid copolymer or its Na+ ion crosslinking body, an ethylene—methacrylic acid copolymer or its Na+ ion crosslinking body, a methyl acrylate copolymer or its Na+ ion crosslinking body, and an ethylenemethyl methacrylate copolymer or its Na+ ion crosslinking body. Favorable materials among these materials are styrene butadiene rubber, polyvinylidene fluoride, an ethylene—acrylic acid copolymer or its Na+ ion crosslinking body, an ethylene—methacrylic acid copolymer or its Na+ ion crosslinking body, a methyl acrylate copolymer or its Na+ ion crosslinking body, and an ethylene-methyl methacrylate copolymer or its Na+ ion crosslinking body.

As a negative electrode current collector, any electronic conductors may be used on the condition that they do not chemically change in the battery. For example, stainless steel, nickel, copper, titanium, carbon, conductive resin, as well as copper and stainless steel of which the surface is coated with carbon, nickel or titanium can be used. Especially favorable materials are copper and copper alloys. Surfaces of these materials may be oxidized. It is desirable to treat the surface of the current collector to make it uneven. Usable forms of the foregoing materials as the current collector include a foil, a film, a sheet, a mesh sheet, a punched sheet a lath form, a porous form, a foamed form and a fibrous form. The thickness is not specifically defined however, normally those of 1˜500 μm in thickness are used.

As positive electrode active materials, lithium compounds or non-lithium containing compounds can be used. Such compounds include Li_(x)CoO₂, Li_(x)NiO₂, Li_(x)MnO₂, Li_(x)Co_(y)Ni_(1−y)O₂, Li_(x)Co_(y)M_(1−y)O_(z), Li_(x)Ni_(1−y)M_(y)O_(z), Li_(x)Mn₂O₄, Li_(x)Mn_(2−y)M_(y)O₄ (M is at least one of Na, Mg, Sc, Y, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Al, Cr, Pb, Sb and B, and x=0-1, Y=0-0.9, z=2.0-2.3). The value of x is the value before charging and discharging, thus it changes along with charging and discharging. Other usable positive electrode materials include transition metal chalcogenides, a vanadium oxide and its lithium compounds, a niobium oxide and its lithium compounds, a conjugate polymer using organic conductive materials, and Chevrel phase compounds. It is also possible to use a plurality of different positive electrode materials in a mixture. The average diameter of particles of the positive electrode active material is not specifically defined, however, the diameter is desirably about 1-30 μm.

Conductive materials for the positive electrode can be any electronic conductive material on the condition that it does not chemically change within the range of charge and discharge electric potentials of the positive electrode materials in use. Examples of such materials include graphite materials including natural graphite (scale-like graphite) and synthetic graphite; carbon black materials such as acethylene black, Ketzen black, channel black, furnace black, lamp black and thermal black; conductive fibers such as carbon fibers and metallic fibers; metal powders such as fluorocarbon and aluminum; conductive whiskers such as a zinc oxide and potassium titanate, conductive metal oxides such as a titanium oxide, and organic conductive materials such as polyphenylene derivatives. These materials can be used independently or in a mixture. Among these conductive materials, synthetic graphite and acetylene black are especially favorable.

Amount of the conductive materials to be added is not specifically defined, however, 1-50 wt %, especially 1-30% of the positive electrode materials is desirable. In the case of carbon and graphite, 2-15 wt % is especially favorable.

Binders for the positive electrode can be either thermoplastic resin or thermosetting resin. The binders for the negative electrode mentioned earlier can be used preferably, however, PVDF and PTFE are more favorable than the others.

Current collectors for the positive electrode of the present invention can be any electronic conductors on the condition that it does not chemically change within the range of charge and discharge electric potentials of the positive electrode materials in use. For example, the current collectors for the negative electrode mentioned earlier may be used preferably. The thickness of the current collectors is not specifically defined, however, those of about 1-500 μm in thickness are used.

As electrode mixtures for the positive electrode and the negative electrode plates, conductive materials, binders, fillers, dispersants, ionic conductor, pressure enhancers, and other additives can be used. Any fiber materials which does not change chemically in the battery can be used as fillers. In general, olefin polymers such as polypropylene and polyethylene, and fibers such as glass fiber and carbon fiber are used as fillers. The amount of the filler to be added is not specifically defined however, it is desirably 0-30 wt % of the electrode binders.

As for the constitution of the positive electrode and the negative electrode, it is favorable that at least the surface of the negative electrode where the negative electrode mixture is applied is facing the surface of the positive electrode where positive electrode mixture is applied.

The electrolyte is composed of non-aqueous solvent and lithium salts dissolved therein. Examples of non-aqueous solvents include cyclic carbonates such as ethylene carbonate (EC), propylene carbonate (PC), butylene carbonate (BC), and vinylene carbonate (VC); acyclic carbonates such as dimethyl carbonate (DMC), diethyl carbonate (DEC), methyl ethyl carbonate (EMC), and dipropylene carbonate (DPC); aliphatic carboxylates such as methyl formate, methyl acetate, methyl propionate, and ethyl propionate;γ-lactones such as γ-butyrolactone; acyclic esters such as 1,2-dimethoxyethane (DME), 1,2-diethoxyethane (DEE), and ethoxymethoxyethane (EME); cyclic esters such as tetrahydrofuran and 2-methyltetrahydrofuran; and non-protonic organic solvents such as dimethyl sulfoxide, 1,3-dioxolane, formamide, acetamide, dimethylformamide, dioxolane, acetonitrile, propyonitrile, nitromethane, ethyl-monoglime, triester of phosphoric acid, trimethoxy methane, dioxolane derivatives, sulfolane, methyl sulfolane, 1,3-dimethyl-2-imidazolidine, 3-methyl-2-oxazolidinone, propylene carbonate derivatives, tetrahydrofuran derivatives, ethyl ether, 1,3-propane saltane, anisole, dimethyl sulfoxide and N-methyl pyrolidon, These solvents are used independently or as a mixture of two or more solvents. Mixtures of cyclic carbonate and acyclic carbonate, or cyclic carbonate, acyclic carbonate and aliphatic carboxylate are especially favorable.

As lithium salts which dissolve into the foregoing solvents include LiClO₄, LiBF₄, LiPF₆, LiAlCl₄, LiSbF₆, LiSCN, LiCl, LiCF₃SO₃, LiCF₃CO₂, Li (CF₃SO₂)₂, LiAsF₆, LiN(CF₃SO₂)₂, LiB₁₀Cl₁₀, lithium salts of lower aliphatic carboxylic acid, LiCl, LiBr, LiI, chloroborane lithium, 4-phenil boric acid, and an imide group. These lithium salts can be dissolved in the non-aqueous solvents mentioned earlier individually or as a mixture of two or more to be used as an electrolyte. It is especially favorable to include LiPF₆ in the electrolyte.

Especially favorable non-aqueous electrolytic solution of the present invention include at least EC and EMC, and as a supporting salt, LiPF₆. The amount of the electrolyte to be added to the battery is not specifically defined. It can be determined according to the amount of positive electrode materials and negative electrode materials. The amount of the supporting electrolyte dissolved in the non-aqueous solvent is preferably 0.2-2 mol/l, especially 0.5-1.5 mol/l is favorable.

Instead of an electrolyte, the following solid electrolytes which are categorized into inorganic solid electrolytes and organic solid electrolytes can also be used.

Among inorganic solid electrolytes, lithium nitrides, lithium halides, and lithium oxides are well known. Among them, Li₄SiO₄, Li₄SiO₄—LiI—LiOH, xLi₃PO₄—(1−x)Li₄SiO₄, Li₂SiS₃, Li₃PO₄—Li₂S—SiS₂ and phosphorus sulfide compounds are effective.

Effective organic solid electrolytes include polymer materials such as derivatives, mixtures and complexes of polyethylene oxide, polypropylene oxide, polyphosphazene, polyaziridine, polyethylene sulfide, polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylidene fluoride, polyhexafluoropropylene.

It is effective to add other compounds to the electrolyte in order to improve discharge and charge/discharge properties. Such compounds include triethyl phosphate, triethanolamine, cyclic ethers, ethylene diamine, n-grime, pyridine, triamide hexaphosphate, nitrobenzene derivatives, crown ethers, quaternary ammonium salt, and ethylene glycol di-alkyl ethers.

It is also possible to construct a batteries such that polymer materials, which absorb and retain an organic electrolyte comprising solvents and lithium salts dissolved in the solvents, are included in the positive electrode and the negative electrode binding materials, and porous separators comprising polymers which can absorb and retain an organic electrolyte is disposed integrally with the positive electrode and the negative electrode. Any material which can absorb and retain organic electrolytic solution can be adopted as the polymer material. Among them, a copolymer of vinylidene fluoride and hexafluoropropylene is especially favorable.

Fluorinated carbon compounds added to the negative electrode materials are defined as (C×F) n (1≦x<20). Desirably, these fluorinated carbon compounds irreversibly react with lithium ions in a reduction reaction. An especially high effect can be achieved when a fluorinated compounds of or a mixture of one or more following materials; thermal black, acetylene black, furnace black, vapor phase grown carbon fibers, thermally decomposed carbons, natural graphite, synthetic graphite, meso-phase carbon micro beads, petroleum cokes, coal cokes, petroleum carbon fibers, coal carbon fibers, charcoal, activated carbon, glassy carbon, rayon carbon fibers, and PAN carbon fibers, is used.

The amount of the carbon compounds to be added is desirably the same as the difference in irreversible capacities of the positive electrode and the negative electrode. Since the electrochemical equivalents of the common fluorinated carbons (CF)_(n) and (C₂F)_(n) are respectively 864 mAH/g and 623 mAH/g, when the added amount of carbon compounds is 0.2%˜15% of the total amount of the composite particle materials and carbon compounds, the carbon compounds work most effectively.

Metallic compounds added to the negative electrode materials, and which can be reduced electrochemically to a metal in a reduction reaction, include metallic oxides, metallic sulfides, metallic selenides, and metallic tellurides which react with lithium ions in a reduction reaction within a range of electric potentials between the positive electrode and the negative electrode.

As metallic oxides, at least one can be selected from a group comprising Ag₂O, PbO, NiO, Ni₂O₃, CoO, Co₂O₃, Co₃O₄, CuO, Cu₂O, Bi₂O₃, Sb₂O₃, Cr₂O₃, MnO₂ and FeO₄.

As metallic sulfides, at least one can be selected from a group comprising Ag₂S, PbS, NiS, Ni₂S, Ni₃S₄, CoS, Co₂S₃, Co₃S₄, CuS, Cu₂S, Bi₂S₃, Sb₂S₃, Sb₂S₄, Sb₂S₅, CrS, Cr₂S₃, MnS, Mn₃S₄, MnS₂ and FeS, Fe₂S₃, FeS₂, Mo₂S₃ and MoS₂.

As metallic selenides, at least one can be selected from a group comprising Ag₂Se, PbSe, Co₂Se₃, Co₃Se₄, CuSe, Cu₂Se, Bi₂Se₃, Sb₂Se₃, Sb₂Se₅, and Cr₂Se₃.

As metallic tellurides, at least one can be selected from a group comprising Ag₂Te, PbTe, NiTe, Ni₂Te₃, CuTe, Cu₂Te, Bi₂Te₃ and Sb₂Te₃.

Needless to say, a mixture of these oxides, sulfides, selenides and tellurides can also be used. These compounds need to be added just enough to consume irreversible capacity of the positive electrode. In general, such amount is desirably 0.2%-20% of the total amount of the composite particles and the foregoing compounds.

With these compounds, if for example, NiS is used, metallic nickel is formed in a reduction reaction defined by the following formula;

NiS+2Li⁺+2e⁻→Ni+Li₂S

The nickel formed in the above reaction is chemically and electrochemically stable within the range of the electric potential in which the negative electrode active materials are charged and discharged. During discharge of the negative electrode, the nickel is not oxidized. The reaction is irreversible and the nickel maintains its metal state. Since metallic compounds form metals during the initial charging, conductivity within the negative electrode plate improves significantly. Thus, internal resistance and polarization in the negative electrode are reduced, thereby achieving higher capacity.

When the foregoing additives are used, the negative electrode additives are allowed to be charged with and thus consume an excess of the irreversible capacity of the positive electrode over that of the negative electrode, and thus consumes that amount. Therefore, use of the additives achieves a battery with even higher energy density and better cycle properties. The products of the reduction reaction do not form compounds with lithium afterwards, thus the reaction is irreversible. It is confirmed that, in the case of the metallic oxides, metallic sulfides, metallic selenides, and metallic tellurides of the present invention, reactions are irreversible thus lithium de-intercalating reaction does not occur. This is a remarkable difference from conventional compounds containing lithium used as negative electrode additives and is characteristic of the present invention.

The amount of electricity charged when reacted with lithium in a reduction reaction can be measured in the following steps:

add acetylene black about 30% by weight of the compound (for example, NiS) to be added,

make a pellet by applying a pressure of 250 kg/cm² after adding acetylene black, and fix it on a stainless current collector which then functions as an active electrode,

use metallic lithium on the other electrode as well as on a reference electrode, and

discharge constant current to the electrodes with lithium until their voltage reaches 0V and then measure the amount of electricity.

The most favorable electrolyte for measuring is the one used in the actual battery. The current density for charging is desirably not more than 0.1 mA/cm².

The best result of the present invention was obtained when lithium-containing metallic oxides based on lithium-containing nickel oxides were used as a positive electrode material of which the charge/discharge efficiency at the first cycle is between 75-95%.

FIG. 1 shows a vertical cross section of a cylindrical battery of the present invention. In FIG. 1, an positive electrode plate 5 and negative electrode plate 6 are spirally rolled a plurality of times via separators 7, and placed In a battery casing 1. Coming out from the positive electrode plate 5 is an positive electrode lead 5 a which is connected to a sealing plate 2. In the same manner, a negative electrode lead 6 a comes out from a negative electrode plate 6, and is connected to the bottom of the battery casing 1. Insulating gasket 3 is situated about sealing plate 2.

Electronically conductive metals and alloys having organic electrolyte resistance can be used for the battery casing and lead plates. For example, such metals as iron, nickel, titanium, molybdenum copper and aluminum and their alloys can be used. For the battery casing, processed stainless steel plate or Al—Mn alloy plate is favorably used, and for the positive electrode lead and the negative electrode lead, aluminum and nickel respectively are most favorable. For the battery casing, engineering plastics can be used independently or in combination with metals in order to reduce weight.

Insulating rings 8 are disposed on the top and bottom of an electrode plate group 4. A safety valve can be used as a sealing plate. Apart from the safety valve, other conventionally used safety elements can be disposed. As an overcurrent protector, for example, fuses, bimetal and PTC elements can be used. To deal with increases in internal pressure of the battery casing, a cut can be provided to the battery casing, a gasket cracking method or a sealing plate cracking method can be applied, or the connection to the lead plate can be severed. As other methods, a protective circuit incorporating anti-overcharging and anti-overdischarging systems, can be included in or connected independently to a charger. As an anti-overcharging method, current flow can be cut off by an increase in internal pressure of the battery. In this case, a compound which raises internal pressure can be mixed with the electrode mixture or with the electrolytes. Such compounds include carbonates such as Li₂CO₃, LiHCO₃, Na₂CO₃, NaHCO₃ and MgCO₃.

The cap, the battery casing, the sheet and the lead plate can be welded by conventional methods such as an alternative current or a direct current electric welding, a laser welding and an ultrasonic welding. As a sealing material, conventional compounds and composites such as asphalt can be used.

The battery of the present invention can be applied in any form including coin shapes, button shapes, sheet shapes, laminated shapes, cylinder shapes, flat types, square types and large types used in electric cars.

The battery of the present invention can be used for portable information terminals, portable electronic devices, domestic portable electricity storing devices, motor cycles, electric cars and hybrid electric cars. However, the application of the battery is not limited to the foregoing.

The present invention is described in detail hereinafter in accordance with the preferred embodiments. The descriptions are not intended to be construed as limitations upon the scope of the invention.

Manufacture of the Composite Particles

In Table 1, components (pure elements, inter-metallic compounds, solid solution) of the solid phase A and the solid phase B of the composite particles used in the preferred embodiments of the present invention, composition ratio of elements, melting temperature, and solid phase line temperature are shown. Commercially available highly pure reagents are used as ingredients of each element. Impurities contained in the ingredients are examined with an inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy, and results are described in table 2.

To obtain solid materials, powder or a block of each element composing composite particles is put into a fusion vessel in the composition ratio shown in table 1, fused at the melting temperature also shown in table 1. The fused mixture is rapidly cooled and solidified using a rapid cooling roll. Then, the solid was heat treated at temperatures of 10° C.˜50° C. lower than the solid phase line temperatures shown in table 1, in an inert atmosphere for 20 hours. The heat treated material is ground with a ball mill, and classified by using a sieve to prepare composite particles having a diameter not larger than 45 μm. Observation with an electron microscope confirmed these composite particles having part of or the whole surface of the solid phase A thereof covered with the solid phase B.

Negative Electrode Plate

To prepare the negative electrode plate 6, 20 wt % of carbon powder and 5 wt % of polyvinylidene fluoride are mixed with a 75 wt % of the composite particles synthesized under the foregoing conditions. The mixture is dispersed in dehydrated N-methylpyrrolidinone to form a slurry. The slurry is coated on a negative electrode current collector comprising copper foil, dried and rolled under pressure to form the negative electrode plate 6.

Positive Electrode Plate

To prepare the positive electrode plate 5, 10 wt % of carbon powder and 5 wt % of polyvinylidene fluoride are mixed with 85 wt % of lithium cobaltate powder. The mixture is dispersed in dehydrated N-methylpyrrolidinone to form a slurry. The slurry is coated on an positive electrode current collector comprising copper foil, and dried and rolled under pressure to form the negative electrode plate 5.

Electrolyte

The electrolyte is prepared by dissolving 1.5 mol/l of LiPF₆ in a mixed solvent of EC and EMC mixed at the ratio of 1 to 1 by volume.

The First Preferred Embodiment

In the first preferred embodiment, the piercing strength of the separators disposed in between the positive electrode and the negative electrode is set at around 300 g, and their thickness is set (1) 10 μm, (2) 13 μm, (3) 15 μm, (4) 20 μm, (5) 30 μm, (6) 40 μm and (7) 45 μm. Polyethylene porous film is used to prepare the separators.

Using the materials shown in table 1, batteries with separators with different thickness are manufactured. The manufactured cylindrical batteries are 18 mm in diameter and 65 mm in height. The batteries are charged with constant current of 100 mA until their voltage becomes 4.1 V, and then discharged at the constant current of 100 mA until their voltage becomes 2.0 V. The charge/discharge cycle is repeated in a temperature-controlled oven at 20° C. The charge/discharge cycle is repeated 100 times, and ratio of the discharge capacity at the 100th cycle to that of the first cycle is shown in Table 3 as capacity retention rates.

For comparison, a cylindrical battery is prepared by using graphite materials as the negative electrode material. In this case, 1510 mAh discharge capacity at the first cycle and 92% capacity retention rate at the 100th cycle are obtained.

As it is clearly shown in Table 3, when the piercing strength of the separators is approximately 300 g, batteries 3-6 in which thickness of the separators is 15 μm or more and 40 μm or less, have a superior charge/discharge cycle properties with a higher capacity. Conversely, when the thickness of the separators is 15 μm or less, the capacity retention rate becomes 60% or less and sufficient properties can not be achieved.

The predominant reason for this decrease in the discharge capacity is considerably that, when the thickness of the separators is 15 μm or less, the negative electrode materials or conductive materials around the surface of the negative electrode plate partially penetrate through the separators disposed in between the positive electrode and the negative electrode due to the increase in volume of the negative electrode materials during charging, and cause a micro short circuit.

Although cycle deterioration caused by the micro short circuit does not occur, when the thickness of the separator is 45 μm or more, the volume of the separators within the casing of the battery increases. Thus, the amount of the materials in the positive electrode and the negative electrode decreases, resulting in a lowered discharge capacity at the first cycle to the level almost the same as a battery using graphite materials as the negative electrode. Therefore, it is difficult to achieve a battery with a high capacity.

The Second Preferred Embodiment

In the second preferred embodiment, the thickness of the separators disposed in between the positive electrode and the negative electrode is set at 15 μm, and the piercing strength thereof, set at 152 g, 204 g, 303 g, and 411 g. Polyethylene porous film is used to prepare the separators.

Batteries with different piercing strength are manufactured in the same manner as in the first preferred embodiment. The results are shown in Table 4. As it is clearly shown in Table 4, when the piercing strength of the separators is 200 g or stronger, the charge/discharge cycle property is superior with the capacity retention rate of the battery 85% or higher. Conversely, when the piercing strength of the separators is 200 g or less, the capacity retention rate of the battery is around 40%, thus failing to achieve desired properties.

The predominant reason for this deterioration in the capacity is that, when the piercing strength of the separators is 15 μm or less, the negative electrode materials or conductive materials around the surface of the negative electrode plate partially penetrate through the separators disposed in between the positive electrode and the negative electrode due to the increase in volume of the negative electrode materials during charging, and cause a micro short circuit.

In this embodiment, the batteries are formed with separators of different piercing strength by limiting the thickness of the separators to 15 μm, namely the thinner end of the range of 15 μm or more and 40 μm or less as defined in the present invention. However, from the results of the first and the second preferred embodiments, it can reasonably be expected that a micro short circuit should not occur when the thickness of the separators is within the range defined by the present invention and the piercing strength is 200 g or more.

In this embodiment, the negative electrode materials are limited to material A, however, other materials obtain similar results.

In the first and the second preferred embodiments, polyethylene porous film is used to prepare the separators, however, olefin polymers such as polypropylene and polyethylene may be used independently or in combination to obtain similar results.

Regarding constituent elements of the negative electrode materials, when the solid phase A is Sn, Mg from group 2 elements, Fe and Mo from transition elements, Zn and Cd from group 12 elements, Al from group 13 elements and Sn from group 14 elements are used as constituent elements of the solid phase B. However, similar results are obtained with other elements selected from each group.

When the solid phase A is Si, Mg from the group 2 elements, Co and Ni from the transition elements, Zn from the group 12 elements, A1 from the group 13 elements and Sn from the group 14 elements are used. However, similar results are obtained with other elements selected from each group. Similarly, when the solid phase A is Zn, Mg from group 2 elements, Cu and V from transition elements, Cd from group 12 elements, Al from group 13 elements and Ge from group 14 elements are used. However, similar results are obtained with other elements selected from each group.

The composition ratio of the constituent elements of the negative electrode materials is not defined on the condition that the composite particles have two phases with one of them (phase A) mainly formed with Sn, Si, and Zn, and part of or the whole surface of which is covered with the other phase (phase B). The phase B is not necessarily composed only of solid solutions and inter-metallic compounds shown in Table 1. It may also contain a trace of elements composing each solid solution and inter-metallic compound, as well as other elements.

The Third Preferred Embodiment

In the third preferred embodiment, the amount of the electrolyte is set at 0.05 ml/g, 0.10 ml/g, 0.15 ml/g, 0.20 ml/g, 0.25 ml/g, 0.40ml/g and 0.45 ml/g against the total weight of lithium-cobalt composite oxide contained in the casing of the battery and the negative electrode materials.

With the foregoing construction, batteries with different amounts of electrolyte are prepared in the same manner as the first preferred embodiment. These cylindrical batteries are 18 mm in diameter and 65 mm in height. The batteries are charged with constant current of 100 mA until their voltage becomes 4.1 V, and then discharged at the constant current of 100 mA until their voltage becomes 2.0 V. This cycle is repeated in a temperature-controlled oven at 20° C. The charge/discharge cycle is repeated 100 times, and ratio of the discharge capacity at the 100th cycle to that of the first cycle is shown in Table 5 as capacity retention rates. During charging/discharging cycles, liquid leakage was also observed.

As it is clearly shown in Table 5, the batteries of which the amount of the electrolyte is 0.1 ml/g or more and 0.4 ml/g or less have superior charge/discharge cycle properties with a higher capacity than the batteries using graphite, and have 85% or higher capacity retention rates. On the contrary, when the amount of electrolyte is 0.1 ml/g or less or 0.4 ml/g or higher, desirable properties can not be obtained, as the capacity retention rate fail to reach 85%.

The predominant reason for this decrease in the capacity is that, in the case of the batteries of which the amount of the electrolyte is 0.05 ml/g, the electrolyte fails to cover part of the negative electrode. In the part of the negative electrode where the electrolytic solution sufficiently penetrates, excess lithium ions contribute to the electrode reaction and enhance the charging capacity of the negative electrode materials, thus making the negative electrode materials an undesirable structure in terms of charge/discharge cycle properties. On the other hand, not less than half of the batteries of which the amount of the electrolyte is 0.45 ml/g, have electrolyte leakage during the charge/discharge cycles. This is predominantly due to the excess electrolyte which overflows from in between the positive electrode and the negative electrode plates, raising the internal pressure of the batteries.

The Fourth Preferred Embodiment

In this embodiment, batteries are prepared in the same manner as the first preferred embodiment using the materials shown in Table 1 for the negative electrode, and setting the porosity of the mixture layer of the negative electrode at 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, and 60%. The porosity is adjusted by controlling the level of the rolling by a pressure roll. The thickness of the electrodes is set to be the same. The porosity is measured before constructing the batteries. These cylindrical batteries are 18 mm in diameter and 65 mm in height.

The batteries are charged with constant current of 100 mA until their voltage becomes 4.1 V, and then discharged at the constant current of 100 mA until their voltage becomes 2.0 V. This cycle is repeated in a temperature-controlled chamber at 20° C. The charge/discharge cycle is repeated 100 times, and ratio of the discharge capacity at the 100th cycle to that of the first cycle is shown in Table 6 as the capacity retention rates.

As it is clearly shown in Table 6, the batteries in which the porosity of the mixture layer is 10% or more, have a superior charge/discharge cycle properties with a higher retention rate of 85%. The batteries in which the porosity of the mixture layer is 50% or less, the discharge capacity after 100 cycles is 1500 mAh or more. This value matches the discharge capacity of a battery of the same size as this embodiment, in which carbon materials are used for the negative electrode and the porosity is set at 35%. Therefore, setting the porosity at 10% or more and 50% or less achieves batteries with higher capacity and superior charge/discharge cycle properties than batteries using carbon materials as the negative electrode materials.

The Fifth Preferred Embodiment

In this embodiment, batteries are prepared in the same manner as the battery No. 3 in the first preferred embodiment (thickness of the separator: 20 μm), in which a trace of predetermined amount of impurity elements are mixed with the negative electrode materials to form the composite particles. The added elements, and their amount, the discharge capacity at the first cycle, the discharge capacity at the 100th cycle, and the discharge capacity retention rate are shown in Table 7. In Table 7, the content of the elements is the total amount of impurity elements naturally included in the negative electrode materials and added elements. As Table 7 shows, by adding elements such as iron, lead and bismuth to the composite particles by 0.0005 wt % to 0.0020 wt %, the discharge capacity retention rate increases by 1-4%.

The Sixth Preferred Embodiment

In this embodiment, batteries are prepared in the same manner as the battery No. 3 in the first preferred embodiment (thickness of the separators: 20 μm). In the negative electrode, a mixture of the composite particles and fluorinated carbon compounds defined as (C_(x)F) n (1≦n <20) is used. The amount of the added carbon compounds is set at 4% of the addition of the composite particles and the carbon compounds. For comparison, conventional batteries in which the same carbon compounds are added to the graphite materials thereof are examined. The result is shown in Table 8. Comparing Table 8 and Table 3, the batteries of this embodiment have a significantly higher discharge retention rate than those to which no carbon compounds are added. Compared with the batteries using graphite, the batteries of this embodiment have a remarkably higher discharge capacity at the first cycle.

FIG. 3 is a schematic view showing a behavior of electric potentials of both positive electrode and negative electrode of the batteries of this embodiment at the first charging and the first discharging. In FIG. 3, (A-B) is the amount of initial charging of the positive electrode, (B-C) is the initial discharge capacity of the positive electrode, and (C-A) is the irreversible capacity of the positive electrode. (A′-B′) is the initial charging amount of the negative electrode, which is equal to the amount of (A−B) of the positive electrode. In the process of the initial charging of the negative electrode, fluorinated carbon compounds added to the negative electrode are electrochemically reduced, and after the amount (A′-C′) is charged, the negative electrode active materials which are the main components of the negative electrode are charged with lithium ions. It is equal to the initial charge amount in the negative electrode active materials (B′-C′). The discharge capacity of the negative electrode is (B′-D) which is equal to that of the positive electrode (B-C). The discharge capacities of the positive electrode and the negative electrode are reversible capacities of each electrode. (C′-D) is an irreversible capacity of the negative electrode active materials themselves.

As understood from FIG. 3, for the amount of the fluorinated carbon compounds, the value of (A′-C′), obtained by subtracting the irreversible capacity of the composite particles which are main materials of the negative electrode from the reversible capacity of the positive electrode (C-A), is applied. The fluorinated carbon compounds have large electrochemical equivalents per weight, therefore, the amount needed to be added is very small, and even after being added to the negative electrode, the increase in volume is insignificant.

As described so far, by adding fluorinated carbon compounds during charging especially during the first charging, to the negative electrode, reversible capacity of the positive electrode and the negative electrode is utilized to the maximum extent, thereby achieving a high capacity. At the same time, excessive charging of the negative electrode occurring during the charging and discharging from the second cycle onwards, is effectively restricted, thereby preventing the deterioration of the cycle life.

The Seventh Preferred Embodiment

In this embodiment, batteries are formed in the same manner as the sixth preferred embodiment.

The positive electrode plate is manufactured in the steps described below.

Nickel sulfate solution, cobalt sulfate solution, and sodium hydrate solution are used. The nickel sulfate solution and the cobalt sulfate solution are lead into a vessel at a constant flow rate, stirred thoroughly, and then the sodium hydrate solution is added. Formed precipitate is washed with water and dried to obtain co-precipitated nickel-cobalt hydroxides. The composition formula of the co-precipitated nickel-cobalt hydroxides is Ni_(0.85)Co_(0.15)(OH)₂. The co-precipitated nickel-cobalt hydroxides and lithium hydroxides are mixed, and in an oxidizing atmosphere, are heated for 10 hours at 800° C. to form LiNi_(0.85)Co_(0.15)O₂.

To prepare the positive electrode plate 5, 10 wt % carbon powder and 5 wt % polyvinylidene fluoride are mixed with 85 wt % LiNi_(0.85)Co_(0.15)O₂. The mixture is dispersed in dehydrated N-methyl pyrrolidinone to form a slurry. The slurry is coated on a negative electrode current collector comprising aluminum foil, dried and rolled under pressure to form the negative electrode plate 6.

NiO is mixed into the negative electrode. The amount of the foregoing metallic compounds added is 3.36 wt % against the total amount of the composite particles and the foregoing metallic compounds. For comparison, a battery prepared by adding 3.10 wt % of NiO to graphite conventionally used in batteries is examined. The result is shown in Table 9. Comparing Table 9 and Table 3, the batteries of this embodiment have a significantly higher discharge retention rate than the ones without NiO, resulting in increase in the cycle characteristics. Compared with the batteries using graphite, the batteries of this embodiment have a remarkably higher discharge capacity at the first cycle.

The reason why the cycle properties improve in this embodiment is the same as that of the sixth preferred embodiment.

The Eighth Preferred Embodiment

In this embodiment, batteries are formed in the same manner as the seventh preferred embodiment. Materials C and J in Table 1 are used for the composite particles of the negative electrode materials. Besides the composite particles, metallic oxides, metallic sulfides, metallic selenides, and metallic tellurides are also used for the negative electrode. The amount of the foregoing metallic compounds to be added is shown in Table 10 in weight percentage against the total amount of the composite particles and the metallic compounds. The result is shown in Table 10. Comparing Table 10 and Table 3, the batteries of this embodiment have a significantly higher discharge retention rate and better cycle properties than those to which none of the metallic compounds mentioned above is added.

As is the case with NiO added in the seventh preferred embodiment, other metallic oxides, metallic sulfides, metallic selenides, and metallic tellurides achieve similar results.

In this embodiment, LiNi_(0.85)Co_(0.15)O₂ is used as an positive electrode active material, however, other lithium containing metallic compounds, whose charge/discharge efficiency to intercalate and de-intercalate lithium ions defined as (intercalating amount/de-intercalating amount×100 (%)) is within the range of 75%˜95%, can achieve similar results since working principle of the batteries is the same. Especially when the positive electrode active materials are lithium containing nickel oxides defined as Li_(x)Mi_(1−y)M_(y)O_(z) (M is at least one of Na, Mg, Sc, Y, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Al, Cr, Pb, Sb and B, and x=0-1.2, Y=0-0.9, z=2.0-2.3), the irreversible capacity is large, thus the effect of the present invention is especially high. Even higher effect can be achieved when the above lithium containing nickel oxides are synthesized at a temperature range of 750° C.-900° C.

The Ninth Preferred Embodiment

In this embodiment, batteries are prepared in the same manner as the first preferred embodiment, and with different ratios of the positive electrode specific surface area to that of the negative electrode. Material B in Table 1 is used as a negative electrode material. The specific surface area of the material B changes under various manufacturing conditions besides the diameter of the particles, such as rotating velocity of the roll during roll-quenching, conditions of the heat treatment conducted in an inert atmosphere, and conditions of the grinding by the ball mill. Powder materials having various specific surface areas as a result of these different manufacturing conditions are used as samples.

It has been known that the specific surface area of the lithium cobaltate used as the positive electrode materials can be changed depending on different manufacturing methods. The cylindrical batteries prepared in this embodiment are 18 mm in diameter and 65 mm in height. FIG. 4 shows changes in the cycle life and the deterioration in the capacity retention rate at high temperatures.

The horizontal axis of FIG. 4 shows values of (the specific surface area of the negative electrode materials)/(the specific surface area of the positive electrode materials) (hereinafter, ratio of the specific surface area) as a logarithm axis. The vertical line on the right side shows the cycle life, and on the left side, deterioration in the capacity retention rate. During the test on the cycle life, batteries are charged with constant voltage of 4.1V and constant current 1A in maximum current limit, until the current becomes 100 mA. The discharge is conducted by the constant current of 500 mA until the voltage reaches 2.0V. Quiescent period during switching between charging and discharging is set to be 20 minutes. For the cycle life, the number of cycles repeated until the capacity decreases to 80% of the first discharge capacity are measured. The vertical line of FIG. 4 shows values of cycle life obtained when the cycle life of a battery, which is prepared for comparison in the same manner using graphite as a negative electrode material, is set at 100. The ratio of the specific surface area of the battery using graphite prepared for comparison is 8. The charging/discharging cycles are repeated in a temperature-controlled oven at 20° C. The test on deterioration in the capacity retention rate is conducted on a charged battery which is kept in the temperature-controlled oven at 60° C. for 20 days by measuring its capacity retention rate against its initial capacity. In this case as well, the ratio is shown when the deterioration rate in the capacity of the battery using graphite as a negative electrode material is 100. Looking at the cycle life, as FIG. 4 shows, when the ratio of the specific surface area is 1.0 or less, it starts to decrease gradually and at 0.3 or less, it decreases rapidly. Therefore, the ratio is favorably 0.3 or more, and especially 1.0 or more. When the ratio of the specific surface area is 0.3 or less, the influence of a smaller reaction area of the negative electrode compared with that of positive electrode becomes clear with lithium depositing on the surface of the negative electrode material during a high-speed charging, thereby significantly reducing the cycle life of the batteries.

Regarding the capacity retention rate, when the ratio of the specific surface area is 4 or more, it lowers gradually and at 12 or more, it lowers rapidly. Therefore, the ratio of the specific surface area is favorably 12 or less, especially 4 or less. When it is 4 or more, the utilization rate of the positive electrode materials increases. As a result, the electric potential of the positive electrode when fully charged, rises promoting the generation of gas. Thus, when the battery is charged and left as it is, significant deterioration in the capacity results. Due to the foregoing reasons, the ratio of the specific area is favorably between 0.3 and 12, especially between 1 and 4.

In the same manner, batteries are prepared using negative electrode materials other than the material B in Table 1, and the cycle life and the deterioration in the capacity retention rate at high temperatures are measured. The result is shown in Table 11. With these materials, almost the same results are obtained. In the sections of cycle life and the deterioration in the capacity retention rate of Table 11, favorable ranges of the ratios of the specific surface area are shown. Regarding the cycle life, favorable ranges are not less than the values in parenthesis. Conversely, favorable ranges for the capacity retention rate are not more than the values in the parentheses.

In this embodiment, the batteries are charged with constant voltage of 4.1V and constant current 1A in maximum current limit, however, similar results are achieved with different charging voltage and current levels and with pulse charging. Considering this result, the favorable ratio of the specific surface area is between 0.3 and 12, and particularly between 1 and 4, regardless of charging/discharging conditions. This preferred embodiment confirms that the batteries of the present invention are suitable for a high-speed charging.

The Tenth Preferred Embodiment

In this embodiment, batteries are prepared in the same manner as the ninth preferred embodiment. To measure impedance, a cylindrical battery in which a positive electrode or a negative electrode plate is used as an active electrode and lithium metal is used as the opposite electrode. In this case, a cylindrical battery like the one shown in FIG. 1 is prepared in such a manner that electrode plates and metallic lithium foil are rolled up via separators to form a cylindrical structure. The battery is 17 mm in diameter and 50 mm in height.

Impedance is measured at a frequency range of 10 kHz and 10 MHz. FIG. 5 shows one of the measured values plotted on a complex plane. This is the result of a cylindrical battery in which graphite is used as a negative electrode material and lithium metal as an opposite electrode. In the case of this measuring, the battery is charged in advance so that lithium ions of 155 mAH/g are intercalated into the graphite.

As FIG. 5 shows, the diameter of the arc is defined as R; with R1 being a diameter of an arc plotted when the positive electrode plate is set as an active electrode, and R2, the negative electrode plate. Impedance is measured after charging the batteries such that both electrode plates are charged 50%, assuming their conditions when they are incorporated into a battery.

FIG. 6 shows changes in the cycle life and the deterioration in the capacity retention rate at high temperatures of cylindrical batteries using a variety of different positive electrodes and negative electrodes. The horizontal axis of FIG. 6 shows values of the logarithm of R2/R1. The vertical axis on the right side shows cycle life, and on the left deterioration in the capacity retention rate. During the test on the cycle life, batteries are charged with constant voltage of 4.1V and constant current 1A in maximum current limit, until the current becomes 100 mA. The discharge is conducted at a constant current of 500 mA until the voltage reaches 2.0V. The quiescent period during switching between charging and discharging is set at 20 minutes. Regarding the cycle life, the number of cycles repeated until the capacity decreases to 80% of the first discharge capacity are measured. The vertical line of FIG. 6 shows the ratio of cycle life against the cycle life, being set at 100, of a battery prepared for comparison in the same manner using graphite as a negative electrode material. The value of R2/R1 of the battery which is prepared for comparison using graphite as a negative electrode material is 0.5. The charging/discharging cycles are repeated in a temperature-controlled oven at 20° C. The test on deterioration in the capacity retention rate is conducted on a charged battery which is kept in the temperature-controlled oven at 60° C. for 20 days by measuring its capacity retention rate against its initial capacity. In this case as well, the ratio is shown when the deterioration rate in the capacity of the battery using graphite as a negative electrode material is 100.

Regarding the cycle life, as FIG. 6 shows, when the value of R2/R1 is 2 or more, it starts to decrease gradually and at 15 or more, it decreases rapidly. Therefore, the value is favorably 15 or less, particularly 2 or less. Regarding the capacity retention rate, when the value of R2/R1 is 0.5 or less, it lowers gradually and at 0.01 or less, it lowers rapidly. Therefore, the value of R2/R1 is favorably 0.01 or larger, and particularly 0.05 or larger. Due to the foregoing reasons, the value of R2/R1 is favorably between 0.01 and 15, especially between 0.05 and 2.

In the same manner, batteries are prepared using negative electrode materials other than the material B in Table 1, and the cycle life and the deterioration in the capacity retention rate at high temperatures are measured. The result is shown in Table 10. With these materials, almost the same results as those of the material B are obtained. In the sections concerning cycle life and the deterioration in the capacity retention rate in Table 10, favorable ranges of R2/R1 are shown. Values in parentheses indicate more favorable ranges. Regarding the cycle life, favorable ranges are not more than the values in the parenthesis. Conversely, favorable ranges for the capacity retention rate are not less than the values in the parentheses.

In this embodiment, the batteries are charged with constant voltage of 4.1V and constant current 1A in maximum current limit, however, similar result are achieved with different charging voltage and current levels and with pulse charging. Considering this result, the favorable value of R2/R1 is between 0.01 and 15, and particularly between 0.05 and 2 regardless of charging/discharging conditions.

Industrial Applicability

As thus far described, according to the present invention, non-aqueous electrolyte secondary batteries which are capable of being charged at a high speed and have higher capacity and superior cycle properties to conventional batteries using carbon materials as negative electrode materials thereof can be achieved. The industrial effect of this is remarkable.

TABLE 1 Negative Melting Solid line electrode temperature temperature Composition material Phase A Phase B (° C.) (° C.) (Atom %) Material A Sn Mg₂Sn 770 204 Sn:Mg = 50:50 Material B Sn FeSn₂ 1540 513 Sn:Fe = 70:30 Material C Sn MoSn₂ 1200 800 Sn:Mo = 70:30 Material D Sn Zn, Sn Solid S. 420 199 Sn:Zn = 90:10 Material E Sn Cd, Sn Solid S. 232 133 Sn:Cd = 95:5 Material F Sn In, Sn Solid S. 235 224 Sn:In = 98:2 Material G Sn Sn, Pb Solid S. 232 183 Sn:Pb = 80:20 Material H Si Mg₂Si 1415 946 Si:Mg = 70:30 Material I Si CoSi₂ 1495 1259 Si:Co = 85:15 Material J Si NiSi₂ 1415 993 Si:Ni = 69:31 Material K Si Si, Zn Solid S. 1415 420 Si:Zn = 50:50 Material L Si Si, Al Solid S. 1415 577 Si:Al = 40:60 Material M Si Si, Sn Solid S. 1415 232 Si:Sn = 50:50 Material N Zn Mg₂Zn₁₁ 650 364 Zn:Mg = 92.9:7.8 Material O Zn Zn, Cu Solid S. 1085 425 Zn:Cu = 97:3 Material P Zn VZn₁₁ 700 420 Zn:V = 94:6 Material Q Zn Zn, Cd Solid S. 420 266 Zn:Cd = 50:50 Material R Zn Zn, Al Solid S. 661 381 Zn:Al = 90:10 Material S Zn Zn, Ge Solid S. 938 394 Zn:Ge = 97:3

TABLE 2 Impurities (Weight ppm) Material Ag Al Bi Ca Cd Co Cr Cu Fe Mg Mn Mo Na Ni Pb Sb Sn Si Zn Al 1 2 2 Cd 1 1 3 2 Co 18 1 12 5 125 23 Cu 1 1 1 1 1 2 <1 1 Fe <1 4 Ge 3 5 <1 <1 <1 In <1 <1 <1 4 1 3 <1 <1 <1 Mg <1 <1 <1 15 35 <1 10 Mo 12 2 <1 <1 Ni 10 8 Pb <1 <1 4 <1 <1 <1 <1 Sn 2 10 2 3 14 2 11 <1 1 V 6 100 80 100 9 30 <1 <1 500 Zn <1 <1 <1

TABLE 3 Separator Initial Discharge 100th Discharge capacity Battery Thickness Capacity Capacity retention rate No. (micro meter) (mAh) (mAh) (%) Material 1 10 2050 882 43 A 2 13 1998 1039 52 3 15 1963 1688 86 4 20 1872 1684 90 5 30 1396 1476 87 6 40 1520 1307 86 7 45 1422 1209 85 B 1 10 2045 838 41 2 13 1990 955 48 3 15 1952 1737 89 4 20 1864 1678 90 5 30 1688 1469 87 6 40 1509 1283 85 7 45 1420 1221 86 C 1 10 2029 811 40 2 13 1973 987 50 3 15 1937 1666 86 4 20 1847 1625 88 5 30 1665 1449 87 6 40 1495 1270 85 7 45 1397 1229 88 D 1 10 2030 791 39 2 13 1973 1007 51 3 15 1942 1728 89 4 20 1852 1667 90 5 30 1673 1489 89 6 40 1495 1300 87 7 45 1406 1209 86 E 1 10 2056 822 40 2 13 2000 860 43 3 15 1964 1748 89 4 20 1875 1706 91 5 30 1697 1476 87 6 40 1517 1304 86 7 45 1426 1254 88 F 1 10 2042 776 38 2 13 1987 914 46 3 15 1954 1700 87 4 20 1861 1694 91 5 30 1683 1498 89 6 40 1503 1323 88 7 45 1415 1274 90 G 1 10 2053 821 40 2 13 1997 1018 51 3 15 1962 1727 88 4 20 1871 1684 90 5 30 1695 1475 87 6 40 1512 1300 86 7 45 1421 1250 88 H 1 10 2130 767 36 2 13 2080 957 46 3 15 2045 1779 87 4 20 1956 1760 90 5 30 1776 1581 89 6 40 1594 1387 87 7 45 1504 1308 87 I 1 10 2111 802 38 2 13 2067 1034 50 3 15 2028 1744 86 4 20 1940 1727 89 5 30 1762 1533 87 6 40 1579 1342 85 7 45 1493 1314 88 J 1 10 2155 776 36 2 13 2100 966 46 3 15 2065 1838 89 4 20 1974 1796 91 5 30 1759 1583 90 6 40 1616 1390 86 7 45 1526 1358 89 K 1 10 2147 902 42 2 13 2094 1047 50 3 15 2058 1770 86 4 20 1969 1772 90 5 30 1788 1556 87 6 40 1611 1385 86 7 45 1518 1366 90 L 1 10 2169 781 36 2 13 2113 866 41 3 15 2076 1806 87 4 20 1989 1750 88 5 30 1805 1552 86 6 40 1628 1384 85 7 45 1530 1331 87 M 1 10 2160 778 36 2 13 2105 989 47 3 15 2069 1821 88 4 20 1981 1783 90 5 30 1802 1550 86 6 40 1620 1377 85 7 45 1532 1348 88 N 1 10 2117 910 43 2 13 2065 1053 51 3 15 2027 1804 89 4 20 1939 1764 91 5 30 1759 1530 87 6 40 1579 1342 85 7 45 1487 1322 89 O 1 10 2126 957 45 2 13 2070 1014 49 3 15 2034 1790 88 4 20 1945 1751 90 5 30 1765 1571 89 6 40 1584 1362 86 7 45 1498 1303 87 P 1 10 2085 730 35 2 13 2026 790 39 3 15 1993 1754 88 4 20 1909 1692 89 5 30 1720 1479 86 6 40 1543 1312 85 7 45 1453 1279 88 Q 1 10 2092 837 40 2 13 2034 956 47 3 15 2001 1721 86 4 20 1910 1719 90 5 30 1735 1509 87 6 40 1552 1319 85 7 45 1462 1287 88 R 1 10 2127 787 37 2 13 2076 1038 50 3 15 2039 1794 88 4 20 1949 1754 90 5 30 1769 1557 88 6 40 1589 1351 85 7 45 1501 1336 89 S 1 10 2087 897 43 2 13 2034 997 49 3 15 1995 1736 87 4 20 1907 1697 89 5 30 1725 1484 86 6 40 1550 1318 85 7 45 1459 1313 90

TABLE 4 Separator 100th Piercing Initial Discharge Discharge capacity Battery Strength Capacity Capacity retention rate No. (g) (mAh) (mAh) (%) Material 1 152 1963 844 43 A 2 204 1963 1747 89 3 303 1963 1688 86 4 411 1963 1766 90 H 1 152 1956 841 43 2 204 1956 1741 89 3 303 1956 1682 86 4 411 1956 1760 90

TABLE 5 100th Electrolyte Initial Discharge Discharge capacity Battery Amount Capacity Capacity retention rate No. (ml/g) (mAh) (mAh) (%) Material 1 0.05 1872 1367 73 A 2 0.10 1872 1591 85 3 0.15 1872 1610 86 4 0.20 1872 1685 90 5 0.25 1872 1629 87 6 0.40 1872 1591 85 7 0.45 1872 1310 70 B 1 0.05 1864 1342 72 2 0.10 1864 1603 85 3 0.15 1864 1659 86 4 0.20 1864 1678 88 5 0.25 1864 1622 87 6 0.40 1864 1584 85 7 0.45 1864 1342 72 C 1 0.05 1847 1274 69 2 0.10 1847 1570 85 3 0.15 1847 1588 86 4 0.20 1847 1625 88 5 0.25 1847 1607 87 6 0.40 1847 1570 85 7 0.45 1847 1330 72 D 1 0.05 1852 1315 74 2 0.10 1852 1574 86 3 0.15 1852 1648 89 4 0.20 1852 1667 91 5 0.25 1852 1648 87 6 0.40 1852 1611 86 7 0.45 1852 1333 74 E 1 0.05 1875 1388 74 2 0.10 1875 1613 86 3 0.15 1875 1669 89 4 0.20 1875 1163 91 5 0.25 1875 1706 87 6 0.40 1875 1613 86 7 0.45 1875 1388 74 F 1 0.05 1861 1340 72 2 0.10 1861 1600 86 3 0.15 1861 1619 87 4 0.20 1861 1694 91 5 0.25 1861 1656 89 6 0.40 1861 1638 88 7 0.45 1861 1377 74 G 1 0.05 1871 1310 70 2 0.10 1871 1590 85 3 0.15 1871 1646 88 4 0.20 1871 1683 90 5 0.25 1871 1628 87 6 0.40 1871 1609 86 7 0.45 1871 1347 72 H 1 0.05 1956 1369 70 2 0.10 1956 1682 86 3 0.15 1956 1702 87 4 0.20 1956 1760 90 5 0.25 1956 1741 89 6 0.40 1956 1702 87 7 0.45 1956 1428 73 I 1 0.05 1940 1377 71 2 0.10 1940 1649 85 3 0.15 1940 1668 86 4 0.20 1940 1727 89 5 0.25 1940 1688 87 6 0.40 1940 1649 85 7 0.45 1940 1416 73 J 1 0.05 1974 1421 72 2 0.10 1974 1717 87 3 0.15 1974 1757 89 4 0.20 1974 1796 91 5 0.25 1974 1777 90 6 0.40 1974 1698 86 7 0.45 1974 1402 71 K 1 0.05 1969 1359 69 2 0.10 1969 1674 85 3 0.15 1969 1693 86 4 0.20 1969 1772 90 5 0.25 1969 1713 87 6 0.40 1969 1693 86 7 0.45 1969 1437 73 L 1 0.05 1989 1432 72 2 0.10 1989 1691 85 3 0.15 1989 1730 87 4 0.20 1989 1750 88 5 0.25 1989 1711 86 6 0.40 1989 1691 85 7 0.45 1989 1372 69 M 1 0.05 1981 1407 71 2 0.10 1981 1704 86 3 0.15 1981 1743 88 4 0.20 1981 1783 90 5 0.25 1981 1704 86 6 0.40 1981 1684 85 7 0.45 1981 1446 73 N 1 0.05 1939 1338 69 2 0.10 1939 1668 86 3 0.15 1939 1726 89 4 0.20 1939 1764 91 5 0.25 1939 1687 87 6 0.40 1939 1648 85 7 0.45 1939 1396 72 O 1 0.05 1945 1459 75 2 0.10 1945 1692 87 3 0.15 1945 1712 88 4 0.20 1945 1750 90 5 0.25 1945 1731 89 6 0.40 1945 1673 86 7 0.45 1945 1439 74 P 1 0.05 1901 1331 70 2 0.10 1901 1616 85 3 0.15 1901 1673 88 4 0.20 1901 1692 89 5 0.25 1901 1635 86 6 0.40 1901 1616 85 7 0.45 1901 1388 73 Q 1 0.05 1910 1375 72 2 0.10 1910 1624 85 3 0.15 1910 1643 86 4 0.20 1910 1719 90 5 0.25 1910 1662 87 6 0.40 1910 1624 85 7 0.45 1910 1337 70 R 1 0.05 1949 1364 70 2 0.10 1949 1676 86 3 0.15 1949 1715 88 4 0.20 1949 1754 90 5 0.25 1949 1715 88 6 0.40 1949 1657 85 7 0.45 1949 1442 74 S 1 0.05 1907 1354 71 2 0.10 1907 1621 85 3 0.15 1907 1659 87 4 0.20 1907 1697 89 5 0.25 1907 1640 86 6 0.40 1907 1621 85 7 0.45 1907 1316 69

TABLE 6 100th Initial Discharge Discharge capacity Battery Porosity Capacity Capacity retention rate No. (%) (mAh) (mAh) (%) Material 1 5 2255 1488 66 A 2 10 2192 1776 81 3 20 2052 1765 86 4 30 1922 1730 90 5 40 1790 1647 92 6 50 1656 1557 94 7 60 1499 1439 96 B 1 5 2245 1414 63 2 10 2178 1764 81 3 20 2041 1776 87 4 30 1914 1703 89 5 40 1783 1623 91 6 50 1651 1552 94 7 60 1495 1420 95 C 1 5 2216 1374 62 2 10 2159 1727 80 3 20 2023 1720 85 4 30 1897 1669 88 5 40 1769 1610 91 6 50 1637 1539 94 7 60 1488 1414 95 D 1 5 2223 1423 64 2 10 2163 1795 83 3 20 2031 1787 88 4 30 1902 1712 90 5 40 1772 1648 93 6 50 1640 1558 95 7 60 1493 1418 95 E 1 5 2249 1372 61 2 10 2190 1818 83 3 20 2056 1789 87 4 30 1925 1752 91 5 40 1793 1650 92 6 50 1660 1544 93 7 60 1498 1423 95 F 1 5 2232 1384 62 2 10 2174 1804 83 3 20 2043 1777 87 4 30 1911 1720 90 5 40 1780 1655 93 6 50 1644 1545 94 7 60 1492 1417 95 G 1 5 2244 1369 61 2 10 2185 1792 82 3 20 2049 1803 88 4 30 1921 1729 90 5 40 1789 1664 93 6 50 1657 1574 95 7 60 1501 1426 95 H 1 5 2173 1304 60 2 10 2111 1731 82 3 20 1983 1725 87 4 30 1856 1670 90 5 40 1728 1607 93 6 50 1602 1506 94 7 60 1459 1386 95 I 1 5 2276 1411 62 2 10 2207 1810 82 3 20 2074 1784 86 4 30 1940 1727 89 5 40 1806 1680 93 6 50 1672 1572 94 7 60 1513 1452 96 J 1 5 2318 1484 64 2 10 2249 1867 83 3 20 2111 1858 88 4 30 1974 1796 91 5 40 1837 1708 93 6 50 1701 1616 95 7 60 1532 1455 95 K 1 5 2305 1475 64 2 10 2241 1838 82 3 20 2105 1831 87 4 30 1969 1772 90 5 40 1833 1686 92 6 50 1698 1596 94 7 60 1538 1461 95 L 1 5 2334 1424 61 2 10 2263 1856 82 3 20 2127 1850 87 4 30 1989 1750 88 5 40 1852 1685 91 6 50 1715 1595 93 7 60 1548 1471 95 M 1 5 2325 1418 61 2 10 2254 1848 82 3 20 2118 1843 87 4 30 1981 1783 90 5 40 1843 1696 92 6 50 1707 1588 93 7 60 1542 1465 95 N 1 5 2230 1472 66 2 10 2151 1807 84 3 20 2019 1797 89 4 30 1889 1719 91 5 40 1758 1635 93 6 50 1625 1544 95 7 60 1485 1426 96 O 1 5 2231 1406 63 2 10 2163 1774 82 3 20 2028 1764 87 4 30 1895 1706 90 5 40 1755 1615 92 6 50 1618 1521 94 7 60 1488 1414 95 P 1 5 2230 1405 63 2 10 2168 1778 82 3 20 2031 1747 86 4 30 1901 1692 89 5 40 1771 1612 91 6 50 1634 1520 93 7 60 1493 1418 95 Q 1 5 2238 1343 60 2 10 2178 1742 80 3 20 2043 1757 86 4 30 1910 1719 90 5 40 1779 1654 93 6 50 1647 1565 95 7 60 1498 1438 96 R 1 5 2237 1454 65 2 10 2169 1800 83 3 20 2036 1792 88 4 30 1899 1709 90 5 40 1765 1624 92 6 50 1638 1540 94 7 60 1486 1412 95 S 1 5 2228 1359 61 2 10 2169 1800 83 3 20 2038 1773 87 4 30 1907 1697 89 5 40 1776 1616 91 6 50 1640 1542 94 7 60 1495 1420 95

TABLE 7 Impurirty Element Initial 100th capacity Original Final Discharge Discharge retention content content Capacity Capacity rate Battery (Weight %) (Weight %) (mAh) (mAh) (%) Material 1 Fe 0 0.0015 1872 1685 90.0 A 2 0.0015 0.0030 1872 1699 90.8 3 0.0085 0.0100 1873 1715 91.6 4 0.0985 0.1000 1874 1730 92.3 5 0.9985 1.0000 1873 1727 92.2 1 Pb 0 0.0004 1872 1685 90.0 2 0.0016 0.0020 1872 1700 90.8 3 0.0096 0.0100 1872 1722 92.0 4 0.0996 0.1000 1873 1741 93.0 5 0.9996 1.0000 1873 1730 92.4 1 Bi 0 0.0005 1872 1685 90.0 2 0.0015 0.0020 1872 1701 90.9 3 0.0095 0.0100 1872 1731 92.4 4 0.0995 0.1000 1872 1743 93.1 5 0.9995 1.0000 1873 1732 92.5 B 1 Pb 0 0.0008 1864 1659 89.0 2 0.0012 0.0020 1865 1679 90.0 3 0.0092 0.0100 1864 1721 92.3 4 0.0992 0.1000 1864 1750 93.9 5 0.9992 1.0000 1864 1744 93.6 1 Bi 0 0.0007 1864 1659 89.0 2 0.0013 0.0020 1864 1688 90.6 3 0.0093 0.0100 1865 1699 91.1 4 0.0993 0.1000 1864 1734 93.0 5 0.9993 1.0000 1865 1719 92.2 C 1 Fe 0 0.0013 1847 1628 88.0 2 0.0017 0.0030 1847 1647 89.2 3 0.0087 0.0100 1847 1661 89.9 4 0.0987 0.1000 1848 1688 91.3 5 0.9987 1.0000 1849 1679 90.8 1 Pb 0 0.0008 1847 1625 88.0 2 0.0012 0.0020 1848 1646 89.1 3 0.0092 0.0100 1847 1668 90.3 4 0.0992 0.1000 1847 1689 91.4 5 0.9992 1.0000 1848 1678 90.8 1 Bi 0 0.0007 1847 1625 88.0 2 0.0013 0.0020 1847 1644 89.0 3 0.0093 0.0100 1848 1670 90.4 4 0.0993 0.1000 1847 1685 91.2 5 0.9993 1.0000 1848 1679 90.0 D 1 Fe 0 0.0013 1852 1706 92.1 2 0.0017 0.0030 1853 1729 93.3 3 0.0087 0.0100 1853 1750 94.4 4 0.0987 0.1000 1853 1777 95.9 5 0.9987 1.0000 1853 1768 95.4 1 Pb 0 0.0010 1852 1706 92.1 2 0.0010 0.0020 1852 1727 93.3 3 0.0090 0.0100 1853 1761 95.0 4 0.0990 0.1000 1853 1781 96.1 5 0.9990 1.0000 1852 1766 95.4 1 Bi 0 0.0009 1852 1706 92.1 2 0.0011 0.0020 1854 1719 92.7 3 0.0091 0.0100 1852 1758 94.9 4 0.0991 0.1000 1853 1772 95.6 5 0.9991 1.0000 1854 1760 94.9 E 1 Fe 0 0.0013 1875 1706 91.0 2 0.0017 0.0030 1875 1724 91.9 3 0.0087 0.0100 1875 1745 93.1 4 0.0987 0.1000 1875 1788 95.4 5 0.9987 1.0000 1876 1780 94.9 1 Pb 0 0.0011 1875 1706 91.0 2 0.0009 0.0020 1876 1721 91.7 3 0.0089 0.0100 1875 1741 92.9 4 0.0989 0.1000 1876 1790 95.4 5 0.9989 1.0000 1876 1779 94.8 1 Bi 0 0.0010 1875 1706 91.0 2 0.0010 0.0020 1876 1723 91.8 3 0.0090 0.0100 1877 1730 92.2 4 0.0990 0.1000 1876 1759 93.8 5 0.9990 1.0000 1875 1759 93.8 F 1 Fe 0 0.0014 1861 1694 91.0 2 0.0016 0.0030 1862 1711 91.9 3 0.0086 0.0100 1861 1730 93.0 4 0.0986 0.1000 1862 1755 94.3 5 0.9986 1.0000 1861 1747 93.9 1 Pb 0 0.0011 1861 1694 91.0 2 0.0009 0.0020 1861 1710 91.9 3 0.0089 0.0100 1861 1728 92.9 4 0.0989 0.1000 1862 1759 94.5 5 0.9989 1.0000 1862 1745 93.7 1 Bi 0 0.0010 1861 1694 91.0 2 0.0010 0.0020 1862 1715 92.1 3 0.0090 0.0100 1861 1729 92.9 4 0.0990 0.1000 1864 1749 93.8 5 0.9990 1.0000 1863 1747 93.8 G 1 Fe 0 0.0013 1871 1683 90.0 2 0.0017 0.0030 1871 1705 91.1 3 0.0087 0.0100 1872 1722 92.0 4 0.0987 0.1000 1872 1761 94.1 5 0.9987 1.0000 1872 1755 93.8 1 Bi 0 0.0008 1871 1683 90.0 2 0.0012 0.0020 1873 1701 90.8 3 0.0092 0.0100 1872 1720 91.9 4 0.0992 0.1000 1873 1750 93.4 5 0.9992 1.0000 1873 1748 93.3 H 1 Fe 0 0.0011 1956 1760 90.0 2 0.0009 0.0020 1956 1781 91.1 3 0.0089 0.0100 1957 1821 93.1 4 0.0989 0.1000 1956 1845 94.3 5 0.9989 1.0000 1957 1838 93.9 I 1 Fe 0 0.0015 1940 1727 89.0 2 0.0005 0.0020 1941 1755 90.4 3 0.0085 0.0100 1940 1822 93.9 4 0.0985 0.1000 1940 1861 95.9 5 0.9985 1.0000 1941 1848 95.2 J 1 Fe 0 0.0006 1974 1796 91.0 2 0.0014 0.0020 1974 1822 92.3 3 0.0094 0.0100 1975 1858 94.1 4 0.0994 0.1000 1975 1899 96.2 5 0.9994 1.0000 1974 1867 94.6 K 1 Fe 0 0.0001 1969 1772 90.0 2 0.0019 0.0020 1969 1790 90.9 3 0.0099 0.0100 1969 1801 91.5 4 0.0999 0.1000 1971 1833 93.0 5 0.9999 1.0000 1970 1827 92.7 L 1 Fe 0 0.0005 1989 1750 88.0 2 0.0015 0.0020 1991 1777 89.3 3 0.0095 0.0100 1990 1792 90.1 4 0.0995 0.1000 1991 1825 91.7 5 0.9995 1.0000 1990 1803 90.6 M 1 Fe 0 0.0008 1981 1783 90.0 2 0.0012 0.0020 1981 1803 91.0 3 0.0092 0.0100 1981 1836 92.7 4 0.0992 0.1000 1982 1881 94.9 5 0.9992 1.0000 1981 1870 94.4 N 1 Pb 0 0.0000 1936 1764 91.1 2 0.0005 0.0005 1938 1790 92.4 3 0.0100 0.0100 1936 1807 93.3 4 0.1000 0.1000 1937 1825 94.2 5 1.0000 1.0000 1938 1819 93.9 O 1 Pb 0 0.0000 1945 1751 90.0 2 0.0005 0.0005 1946 1779 91.4 3 0.0100 0.0100 1947 1800 92.4 4 0.1000 0.1000 1946 1805 92.8 5 1.0000 1.0000 1945 1800 92.5 P 1 Pb 0 0.0000 1901 1692 89.0 2 0.0005 0.0005 1901 1711 90.0 3 0.0100 0.0100 1901 1723 90.6 4 0.1000 0.1000 1903 1739 91.4 5 1.0000 1.0000 1901 1736 91.3 Q 1 Pb 0 0.0002 1910 1719 90.0 2 0.0003 0.0005 1910 1744 91.3 3 0.0098 0.0100 1910 1748 91.5 4 0.0998 0.1000 1911 1786 93.5 5 0.9998 1.0000 1910 1751 91.7 R 1 Pb 0 0.0000 1949 1754 90.0 2 0.0005 0.0005 1950 1776 91.1 3 0.0100 0.0100 1950 1799 92.3 4 0.1000 0.1000 1951 1833 94.0 5 1.0000 1.0000 1951 1830 93.8 S 1 Pb 0 0.0000 1907 1697 89.0 2 0.0005 0.0005 1908 1717 90.0 3 0.0100 0.0100 1907 1728 90.6 4 0.1000 0.1000 1907 1747 91.6 5 1.0000 1.0000 1908 1740 91.2

TABLE 8 Negative/ Initial Electrode Discharge Capacity Capacity retention material (mAh) rate (%) Exemplary 1 Material A 2074 96 Embodiment 2 B 2065 98 3 C 2043 97 4 D 2056 98 5 E 2075 97 6 F 2064 96 7 G 2073 98 8 H 2152 97 9 I 2146 98 10 J 2174 96 11 K 2165 98 12 L 2184 97 13 M 2182 95 14 N 2136 97 15 O 2147 98 16 P 2101 96 17 Q 2110 97 18 R 2149 97 19 S 2107 98 Comparative Graphite 1710 93 Example

TABLE 9 Negative Initial Discharge Electrode Capacity Capacity material (mAh) retention rate (%) Exemplary 1 Material A 2072 97 Embodiment 2 B 2064 96 3 C 2047 95 4 D 2052 97 5 E 2075 98 6 F 2061 98 7 G 2071 97 8 H 2156 97 9 I 2140 96 10 J 2174 98 11 K 2169 97 12 L 2189 95 13 M 2181 97 14 N 2139 98 15 O 2145 97 16 P 2101 96 17 Q 2110 97 18 R 2149 97 19 S 2107 96 Comparative Graphite 1710 93 Example

TABLE 10 Material C Material J Initial Initial Discharge Capacity Discharge Capacity Elements Capacity retention Capacity retention added Content (mAh) rate (%) (mAh) rate (%) Oxides 1 Ag2O 9.06 2175 96 2170 97 2 PbO 8.75 2156 97 2156 97 3 NiO 6.65 2165 98 2168 95 4 Ni2O3 3.11 2164 95 2166 96 5 CoO 6.65 2173 97 2174 98 6 Co2O3 10.31 2182 98 2188 95 7 Co3O4 3.30 2166 97 2165 96 8 CuO 5.94 2167 98 2168 96 9 Cu2O 16.67 2188 96 2187 97 10 Bi2O3 11.11 2175 95 2177 95 11 Sb2O3 6.12 2173 97 2176 97 12 Cr2O3 6.95 2162 98 2169 98 13 MnO2 2172 97 2171 97 14 Fe3O4 2176 96 2175 96 Sulfides 1 Ag2S 9.71 2164 95 2165 97 2 PbS 9.38 2173 96 2174 96 3 NiS 3.56 2182 96 2180 98 4 Ni2S 2.93 2176 97 2174 96 5 Ni3S4 2.98 2177 98 2172 96 6 CoS 3.57 2177 96 2173 96 7 Co2S3 2.8 2176 95 2175 97 8 Co3O4 2.99 2175 97 2177 98 9 CuS 3.75 2177 96 2172 96 10 Cu2S 6.24 2175 98 2174 97 11 Bi2S3 6.72 2179 97 2176 96 12 Sb2S3 4.44 2172 96 2177 97 13 Sb2S4 3.64 2174 97 2174 97 14 Sb2S5 3.17 2186 98 2181 97 15 CrS 3.30 2167 96 2169 97 16 Cr2S3 2.62 2178 97 2177 98 17 MnS 3.41 2166 96 2169 97 18 Mn3S4 2.87 2185 97 2180 96 19 MnS2 2.33 2174 98 2177 97 20 FeS 3.45 2173 96 2175 97 21 Fe2S3 2.72 2172 97 2179 96 22 FeS2 2.35 2182 98 2180 96 23 Mo2S3 3.76 2181 95 2182 98 24 MoS2 3.14 2175 96 2175 98 Selenides 1 Ag2Se 11.55 2177 97 2176 96 2 PbSe 11.22 2176 98 2174 98 3 Co2Se3 4.64 2165 97 2175 97 4 Co3Se4 4.83 2176 97 2174 96 5 CuSe 5.59 2173 97 2179 96 6 Cu2Se 8.08 2182 96 2180 95 7 Bi2Se3 8.56 2176 95 2175 97 8 Sb2Se3 6.28 2166 98 2167 98 9 Sb2Se5 5.00 2167 96 2169 98 10 Cr2Se3 4.45 2188 95 2180 96 Terulides 1 Ag2Te 13.46 2177 96 2174 97 2 PbTe 13.12 2176 96 2170 97 3 NiTe 7.30 2185 98 2180 98 4 Ni2Te3 6.54 2173 96 2174 97 5 CuTe 7.49 2172 98 2175 97 6 Cu2Te 9.98 2176 97 2179 98 7 Bi2Te3 10.46 2178 96 2170 97 8 Sb2Te3 8.80 2175 97 2171 96

TABLE 11 Negative favorable ranges Electrode From “Capacity retention material From “cycle life” rate” Material A not less than 0.4 (2.0) not more than 12 (4) B not less than 0.3 (1.0) not more than 12 (4) C not less than 0.4 (2.0) not more than 11 (4) D not less than 0.4 (2.0) not more than 11 (4) E not less than 0.3 (1.0) not more than 12 (4) F not less than 0.3 (1.0) not more than 12 (4) G not less than 0.3 (1.0) not more than 12 (4) H not less than 0.4 (1.0) not more than 11 (4) I not less than 0.4 (1.0) not more than 12 (4) J not less than 0.3 (1.0) not more than 12 (4) K not less than 0.4 (2.0) not more than 11 (5) L not less than 0.4 (2.0) not more than 12 (4) M not less than 0.3 (1.0) not more than 12 (4) N not less than 0.3 (2.0) not more than 12 (4) O not less than 0.5 (2.0) not more than 11 (4) P not less than 0.5 (2.0) not more than 12 (4) Q not less than 0.5 (2.0) not more than 11 (3) R not less than 0.5 (2.0) not more than 11 (4) S not less than 0.5 (2.0) not more than 11 (4)

TABLE 12 Negative favorable R2/R1 ranges Electrode From “Capacity retention material From “cycle life” rate” Material A not less than 0.01 (0.05) not more than 15 (1) B not less than 0.01 (0.05) not more than 15 (2) C not less than 0.01 (0.05) not more than 14 (3) D not less than 0.03 (0.08) not more than 13 (1) E not less than 0.02 (0.07) not more than 14 (2) F not less than 0.02 (0.05) not more than 15 (1) G not less than 0.01 (0.07) not more than 15 (2) H not less than 0.01 (0.05) not more than 15 (1) I not less than 0.01 (0.05) not more than 15 (2) J not less than 0.01 (0.05) not more than 15 (2) K not less than 0.03 (0.08) not more than 13 (1) L not less than 0.02 (0.08) not more than 14 (2) M not less than 0.02 (0.08) not more than 15 (2) N not less than 0.03 (0.08) not more than 13 (1) O not less than 0.03 (0.09) not more than 13 (1) P not less than 0.02 (0.09) not more than 12 (1) Q not less than 0.02 (0.09) not more than 13 (1) R not less than 0.02 (0.09) not more than 13 (1) S not less than 0.02 (0.08) not more than 12 (1) 

What is claimed is:
 1. A non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery comprising: a) a positive electrode and a negative electrode capable of intercalating and de-intercalating lithium; b) a non-aqueous electrolyte; and c) one of a separator and a solid electrolyte, wherein: said negative electrode comprises a plurality of composite particles, each of said composite particles comprises a central portion consisting essentially of at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon and zinc, and a coating at least partially around said central portion, said coating comprising a solid solution or an intermetallic compound, said solid solution or said inter-metallic compound comprises a) at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon and zinc, and b) at least one element selected from the group consisting of group 2 elements, transition elements, group 12 elements, group 13 elements and group 14 elements of the Periodic Table exclusive of carbon and exclusive of said element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon, and zinc in said solid solution or said inter-metallic compound, said negative electrode comprises a mixture layer comprising said plurality of composite particles, and the porosity of said mixture layer is not less than 10% and not more than 50%.
 2. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said non-aqueous electrolyte battery comprises not less than 0.1 mL and not more than 0.4 mL of electrolyte per 1 g of the total weight said positive electrode and said negative electrode.
 3. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 1, wherein when an impedance of an electrochemical cell is measured, R2/R1 is between 0.01 and 15; wherein: said electrochemical cell comprises either said positive electrode or said negative electrode as an active electrode, and lithium metal as an opposite electrode; and R1 is a diameter of a semi-circle plotted on a complex plane when the cell comprises the positive electrode as the active electrode, and R2 is a diameter of a semi-circle plotted on a complex plane when the cell comprises the negative electrode as the active electrode.
 4. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said battery comprises said separator, the thickness of said separator is not less than 15 μm and not more than 40 μm, and the piercing strength of said separator is not less than 200 g.
 5. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 1 wherein said negative electrode comprises a fluorinated carbon compound of the composition C_(x)F, in which 1<x<20.
 6. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 5, wherein said fluorinated carbon compound is selected from the group consisting of fluorinated thermal black, acetylene black, furnace black, vapor phase grown carbon fibers, thermally decomposed carbons, natural graphite, synthetic graphite, meso-phase carbon micro beads, petroleum cokes, coal cokes, petroleum derived carbon fibers, coal derived carbon fibers, charcoal, activated carbon, glassy carbon, rayon derived carbon fibers, PAN derived carbon fibers, and mixtures thereof.
 7. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 5, wherein an amount of said fluorinated carbon compound to be added to said negative electrode corresponds to difference in irreversible capacity between said positive electrode and said negative electrode, which does not contribute to an initial discharging.
 8. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 5, wherein content of said fluorinated carbon compound is in a range of 0.2%-20% of a sum of said fluorinated carbon compound and said composite particle.
 9. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 5, wherein said positive electrode comprises a lithium containing metallic oxide of the formula Li_(x)Ni_(1−y)M_(y)O_(z); wherein: M is selected from the group consisting of Na, Mg, Sc, Y, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Al, Cr, Pb, Sb, B, and mixtures thereof; and x=0 to 1.2, y=0 to 0.9, and z=2.0 to 2.3.
 10. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 9, wherein an efficiency rate of initial charging/discharging in which said lithium-containing metallic compound de-intercalates lithium ions during initial charging and intercalates lithium ions during initial discharging, is within a range of 75-95%.
 11. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 9, wherein said lithium-containing metallic oxide is synthesized by a process in which a metallic hydroxide is mixed with a lithium hydroxide and heated.
 12. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 9, wherein an efficiency rate of initial charging/discharging in which said lithium-containing metallic compound de-intercalates lithium ions during initial charging and intercalates lithium ions during initial discharging, is within a range of 75-95%.
 13. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said negative electrode additionally comprises a metallic compound which is electrochemically reduced to a metal when said negative electrode is charged.
 14. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 13, wherein said metallic compound is selected from the group consisting of metallic oxides, metallic sulfides, metallic selenides, metallic tellurides, and mixtures thereof.
 15. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 13, wherein said metallic oxide is at least one of Ag₂O, PbO, NiO, Ni₂O₃, CoO, Co₂O₃, Co₃O₄, CuO, Cu₂O, Bi₂O₃, Sb₂O₃, Cr₂O₃, MnO₂ and FeO₄.
 16. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 13, wherein said metallic sulfide is at least one of Ag₂S, PbS, NiS, Ni₂S, Ni₃S₄, CoS, Co₂S₃, Co₃S₄, CuS, Cu₂S, Bi₂S₃, Sb₂S₃, Sb₂S₄, Sb₂S₅, CrS, Cr₂S₃, MnS, Mn₃S₄, MnS₂ and FeS, Fe₂S₃, FeS₂, Mo₂S₃, and MOS₂.
 17. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 13, wherein said metallic selenide is at least one material selected from a group consisting of Ag₂Se, PbSe, Co₂Se₃, Co₃Se₄, CuSe, Cu₂Se, Bi₂Se₃, Sb₂Se₃, Sb₂Se5, and Cr₂Se₃.
 18. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 13, wherein said metallic telluride is at least one material selected from the group consisting of Ag₂Te, PbTe, NiTe, Ni₂Te₃, CuTe, Cu₂Te, Bi₂Te₃ and Sb₂Te₃.
 19. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 13, wherein the amount of said metallic compound present in said negative electrode corresponds to the difference in irreversible capacity between said positive electrode and said negative electrode, which does not contribute to an initial discharging.
 20. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 13, wherein the amount of said metallic compound is 0.2%-20% of the total amount of said metallic compound and said composite particles.
 21. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 13, wherein said positive electrode comprises a lithium containing metallic compound of the formula of Li_(x)Ni_(1−y)M_(y)O_(z); wherein M is selected from the group consisting of Na, Mg, Sc, Y, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Al, Cr, Pb, Sb, B, and mixtures thereof, and x=0 to 1, Y=0 to 0.9, and z=2.0 to 2.3.
 22. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 13, wherein said at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon, and zinc in said central portion is tin, and said at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon, and zinc in said solid solution or inter-metallic compound is tin.
 23. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 13 wherein said at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon, and zinc in said central portion is silicon, and said at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon, and zinc in said solid solution or inter-metallic compound is silicon.
 24. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 13, wherein said at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon, and zinc in said central portion is zinc, and said at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon, and zinc in said solid solution or inter-metallic compound is zinc.
 25. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon, and zinc in said central portion is silicon, and said at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon, and zinc in said solid solution or inter-metallic compound is silicon.
 26. A non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery comprising: a) a positive electrode and a negative electrode capable of intercalating and de-intercalating lithium; b) a non-aqueous electrolyte; and c) one of a separator and a solid electrolyte, wherein: said negative electrode comprises a plurality of composite particles, each of said composite particles comprises a central portion consisting essentially of at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon and zinc, and a coating at least partially around said central portion, said coating comprising a solid solution or an intermetallic compound, said solid solution or said inter-metallic compound comprises a) at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon and zinc, and b) at least one element selected from the group consisting of group 2 elements, transition elements, group 12 elements, group 13 elements and group 14 elements of the Periodic Table exclusive of carbon and exclusive of said element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon, and zinc in said solid solution or said inter-metallic compound, said negative electrode comprises a mixture layer comprising said plurality of composite particles, the porosity of said mixture layer is not less than 10% and not more than 50%, and the ratio of the specific surface area of the negative electrode material to the specific surface area of the positive electrode material is not less than 0.3 and not more than
 12. 27. A non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery comprising; a) a positive electrode and a negative electrode capable of intercalating and de-intercalating lithium; b) a non-aqueous electrolyte; and c) one of a separator and a solid electrolyte, wherein: said negative electrode comprises a plurality of composite particles, each of said composite particles comprises a central portion comprising at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon and zinc, and a coating at least partially around said central portion, said coating comprising a solid solution or an intermetallic compound, said solid solution or said inter-metallic compound comprises a) at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon and zinc, and b) at least one element selected from the group consisting of group 2 elements, transition elements, group 12 elements, group 13 elements and group 14 elements of the Periodic Table exclusive of carbon and exclusive of said element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon, and zinc in said solid solution or said inter-metallic compound, said negative electrode comprises a mixture layer comprising said plurality of composite particles, the porosity of said mixture layer is not less than 10% and not more than 50%, and said composite particles additionally comprise at least one added element selected from the group consisting of not less than 0.002 wt % iron, not less than 0.0005 wt % lead, and not less than 0.002 wt % bismuth.
 28. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 27, wherein said negative electrode additionally comprises a metallic compound which is electrochemically reduced to a metal when said negative electrode is charged, said metallic compound is selected from the group consisting of metallic oxides, metallic sulfides, metallic selenides, metallic tellurides, and mixtures thereof.
 29. A non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery comprising: a) a positive electrode and a negative electrode capable of intercalating and de-intercalating lithium; b) a non-aqueous electrolyte; and c) one of a separator and a solid electrolyte, wherein: said negative electrode comprises a plurality of composite particles, each of said composite particles comprises a central portion comprising at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon and zinc, and a coating at least partially around said central portion, said coating comprising a solid solution or an intermetallic compound, said solid solution or said inter-metallic compound comprises a) at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon and zinc, and b) at least one element selected from the group consisting of group 2 elements, transition elements, group 12 elements, group 13 elements and group 14 elements of the Periodic Table exclusive of carbon and exclusive of said element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon, and zinc in said solid solution or said inter-metallic compound, said negative electrode comprises a mixture layer comprising said plurality of composite particles, the porosity of said mixture layer is not less than 10% and not more than 50%, and said negative electrode additionally comprises a metallic compound which is electrochemically reduced to a metal when said negative electrode is charged.
 30. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 29, wherein said metallic compound is selected from the group consisting of metallic oxides, metallic sulfides, metallic selenides, metallic tellurides, and mixtures thereof.
 31. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 30, wherein the amount of said metallic compound is 0.2%-20% of the total amount of said metallic compound and said composite particles.
 32. A non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery comprising: a) a positive electrode and a negative electrode capable of intercalating and de-intercalating lithium; b) a non-aqueous electrolyte; and c) one of a separator and a solid electrolyte, wherein: said negative electrode comprises a plurality of composite particles, each of said composite particles comprises a central portion consisting essentially of at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon and zinc, and a coating at least partially around said central portion, said coating comprising a solid solution or an intermetallic compound, said solid solution or said inter-metallic compound comprises a) at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon and zinc, and b) at least one element selected from the group consisting of group 2 elements, transition elements, group 12 elements, group 13 elements and group 14 elements of the Periodic Table exclusive of carbon and exclusive of said element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon, and zinc in said solid solution or said inter-metallic compound, said negative electrode comprises a mixture layer comprising said plurality of composite particles, the porosity of said mixture layer is not less than 10% and not more than 50%, and said at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon, and zinc in said central portion is tin, and said at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon, and zinc in said solid solution or inter-metallic compound is tin.
 33. A non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery comprising: a) a positive electrode and a negative electrode capable of intercalating and de-intercalating lithium; b) a non-aqueous electrolyte; and c) one of a separator and a solid electrolyte, wherein: said negative electrode comprises a plurality of composite particles, each of said composite particles comprises a central portion consisting essentially of at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon and zinc, and a coating at least partially around said central portion, said coating comprising a solid solution or an intermetallic compound, said solid solution or said inter-metallic compound comprises a) at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon and zinc, and b) at least one element selected from the group consisting of group 2 elements, transition elements, group 12 elements, group 13 elements and group 14 elements of the Periodic Table exclusive of carbon and exclusive of said element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon, and zinc in said solid solution or said inter-metallic compound, said negative electrode comprises a mixture layer comprising said plurality of composite particles, the porosity of said mixture layer is not less than 10% and not more than 50%, and said at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon, and zinc in said central portion is zinc, and said at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon, and zinc in said solid solution or inter-metallic compound is zinc.
 34. A non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery comprising: a) a positive electrode and a negative electrode capable of intercalating and de-intercalating lithium; b) a non-aqueous electrolyte; and c) one of a separator and a solid electrolyte, wherein: said negative electrode comprises a plurality of composite particles, each of said composite particles comprises a central portion consisting essentially of at least one element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon and zinc, and a coating at least partially around said central portion, said coating comprising a solid solution or an intermetallic compound, said solid solution or said inter-metallic compound comprises a) said element elected from the group consisting of tin, silicon and zinc, and b) at least one element selected from the group consisting of group 2 elements, transition elements, group 12 elements, group 13 elements and group 14 elements of the Periodic Table exclusive of carbon and exclusive of said element selected from the group consisting of tin, silicon, and zinc in said solid solution or said inter-metallic compound, said negative electrode comprises a mixture layer comprising said plurality of composite particles, and the porosity of said mixture layer is not less than 10% and not more than 50%.
 35. The non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery of claim 34, wherein the ratio of the specific surface area of the negative electrode material to the specific surface area of the positive electrode material is not less than 0.3 and not more than
 12. 